hyo:private:positive_computing
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| - | {{:Texture - Human Expression in the Age of Communications Overload.pdf|Texture - Human Expression in the Age of Communications Overload}} | + | |
| - | <WRAP column half> | + | |
| - | ===== An Introduction to Positive Computing ===== | + | |
| - | " | + | |
| - | These messages, however aspirational, | + | * 0 |
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| - | The desire to "do good with technology" | + | |
| - | + | * [[./ | |
| - | As a result, a growing number of technology professionals are seeking a realignment of business goals away from profit and toward social good?a sentiment manifest in the advent of social enterprise that places profit making secondary to a social purpose.[(New ways of structuring a profitable organization around a social benefit come in various forms, including " | + | * [[./positive_computing/ |
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| - | This growing interest in social good among technology professionals is part of a larger emerging public concern for how our digital experience is impacting our emotions, our quality of life, and our happiness. We are gradually leaving behind the stark mechanical push for productivity and efficiency that characterized the early age of computing and maturing into a new era in which people demand that technology contribute to their wellbeing as well as to some kind of net social gain. | + | * [[./ |
| - | + | * [[./positive_computing/I]] | |
| - | This sentiment reflects a broader renaissance of focus on humanistic values such as happiness and human potential that has begun to flourish across many different disciplines. A shift in priorities is now loud and clear among economists, politicians, | + | * [[./positive_computing/2 The Psychology of Wellbeing]] |
| - | + | * [[./positive_computing/Paradigms of Wellbeing]] | |
| - | Similarly, in the past decade psychologists and psychiatrists have achieved hard-won disciplinary support for research that goes beyond illness into aspects of healthy functioning such as resilience, happiness, and altruism.[(In the past decade, psychologists such as Ed Diener, Barbara Fredrickson, | + | * [[./positive_computing/The Medical Model - Wellbeing as the Absence of Dysfunction]] |
| - | + | * [[./positive_computing/Hedonic Psychology - Wellbeing as the Experience of Positive Emotion]] | |
| - | In this book, we refer to this area of work?the design and development of technology to support psychological wellbeing and human potential? as " | + | * [[./positive_computing/Eudaimonic Psychology - Wellbeing as Engagement with Meaning and the Fulfillment of Potentials]] |
| - | + | * [[./positive_computing/Combining Hedonic and Eudaimonic Approaches]] | |
| - | + | * [[./positive_computing/Biology and Neuroscience - Wellbeing as Physiologically Identifiable]] | |
| - | In the same way that economists are measuring wellbeing at the national level and psychologists have been measuring it at an individual level for decades, it's time to consciously and systematically consider wellbeing measures in the design and evaluation of technology. | + | * [[./positive_computing/ |
| - | + | * [[./positive_computing/Expert Perspectives - Technology for Mental Health]] | |
| - | That isn't to say it will be easy. Understanding the impact of technology on individuals and on society is fraught with the challenges common to understanding any highly complex system. Cultural, social, ethical, and psychological variables will inevitably conspire to create a complex, nuanced, and challenging space for investigation. This suggests that partnering with social scientists (old hands at dealing empirically with multifaceted human systems) will be absolutely vital to success. | + | * [[./positive_computing/Note]] |
| - | + | * [[./positive_computing/References]] | |
| - | A simple glance at modern media suggests that the public is eager for those of us working in technology to take on this challenge. Best-seller lists abound with books on happiness as well as with books on how technology is affecting it. Warnings that technology is degrading our intelligence and inducing stress sit alongside promises of how it will save the world.[(We would include here The Shallows by N. Carr, Alone Together by S. Turkle, Nudge by R. Thaler and C. Sunstein, and also Flourish and Authentic Happiness by M. Seligman among others.)] | + | * [[./positive_computing/3. Multidisciplinary Foundations]] |
| - | + | * [[./positive_computing/ | |
| - | What's clear is that many of us are interested in (and even nervous about) how these pervasive tools are affecting us, and we seek out ways of getting a handle on the situation. After all, it's arguably our fundamental goal in life as human beings to pursue happiness, and in the modern world we're either going to do so with the help of technology or in spite of it. | + | * [[./positive_computing/ |
| - | + | * [[./positive_computing/Education | |
| - | Of course, some might argue that technological progress in and of itself is enough to improve wellbeing across the population. Tempting as it is to go along with that assumption, the evidence persists in suggesting otherwise. | + | * [[./positive_computing/ |
| - | + | * [[./positive_computing/Business and Organizational Psychology | |
| - | ==== Technological Progress a Poor Proxy for Wellbeing | + | * [[./positive_computing/ |
| - | Remarkably, despite major advancements and an incredible proliferation of devices, there is no evidence our modern tools have made us psychologically healthier or happier today than we were 20 years ago.[(Longitudinal studies by economists show that although wealth has tripled in the United States over the past 30 years, increases in life satisfaction have been marginal. This increase in wealth has likewise come with a significant increase in digital technology use, yet with no significant increase in life satisfaction. Even if we don't expect wellbeing measures to follow Moore' | + | * [[./positive_computing/ |
| - | + | * [[./positive_computing/References]] | |
| - | However, if digital technologies are not actively supporting our wellbeing, it is simply because we have yet to consider it in the design cycle of technology. This oversight has occurred for many reasons, including a historical position among engineers and computer scientists that makes us more comfortable staying clear of the difficult-to-quantify and value-laden aspects of psychological impact. In other words, wellbeing has been not only traditionally overlooked but even consciously excluded from consideration owing to a legacy of industry discomfort with certain aspects of humanness. | + | * [[./positive_computing/4 Wellbeing in Technology Research]] |
| - | + | * [[./positive_computing/ | |
| - | ==== The Human-Machine Legacy | + | * [[./positive_computing/ |
| - | Although there are significant exceptions (including the critical work in values-sensitive design and other efforts in HCI), few technology professionals have begun adding user wellbeing to their brief. In fact, just try mentioning happiness or wellbeing at a seminar for software engineers, and you're guaranteed some eyebrow raising (or that special breed of academic heckling). In his book Texture, Richard H. R. Harper (2010) attributes the pragmatic and behaviorist mindset that dominates HCI to the early influence of Alan Turing and Norbert Wiener. | + | * [[./positive_computing/Affective Computing - Technology and Emotions]] |
| - | + | * [[./ | |
| - | < | + | * [[./ |
| - | Turing believed he was inventing a new discipline, one that dealt with algorithms. But this vision also included a view of the human. As it happens, Wiener thought that the science he was inventing, cybernetics, | + | * [[./ |
| - | </blockquote> | + | * [[./positive_computing/ |
| - | + | * [[./positive_computing/ | |
| - | Harper makes no claim to being immune to this influence, and he shares insightful examples of technology development projects that failed to predict actual human use: "We recognized that issues of human action were relevant here, but our instincts were to avoid them; Turing' | + | * [[./positive_computing/ |
| - | + | * [[./positive_computing/References]] | |
| - | In attempting to unpack the Turing? | + | * [[./ |
| - | + | * II | |
| - | * The first (which we call the " | + | * [[./ |
| - | * A second group (which we call the " | + | * [[./positive_computing/ |
| - | * The third group (agnostics) argue that it is impossible to say if products have positive or negative effects on wellbeing because, as a matter of principle, you can't measure that kind of thing. | + | * [[./ |
| - | * And finally, the fourth group is what Sextus Empiricus would call " | + | * [[./ |
| - | + | * [[./ | |
| - | Although we believe this is changing, we have found that our industry' | + | * [[./ |
| - | + | * [[./ | |
| - | Nevertheless, | + | * [[./ |
| - | + | * [[./ | |
| - | Overall, in discussions with field leaders about positive computing, we find our colleagues are most likely to feel uncertain about the feasibility of measuring a concept as apparently nebulous and personal as wellbeing. Fortunately, | + | * [[./ |
| - | + | * [[./positive_computing/ | |
| - | ==== Measuring What Matters | + | * [[./ |
| - | Indeed, positive computing may appear out of reach at first glance, in the way that "user experience" | + | * [[./ |
| - | + | * [[./ | |
| - | For example, researchers have been measuring and assessing attributes such as happiness, quality of life, and subjective wellbeing since at least the 1970s (Fordyce, 1977). There are now more than 1,400 wellbeing and quality-of-life instruments for various specific subgroups (customized to age, culture, religion, context, etc.) and thousands of studies validating these instruments.[(The Australian Quality of Life Centre maintains a useful directory of research instruments. For example, the Personal Wellbeing Index has separate versions for adults, preschoolers, | + | * [[./ |
| - | + | * [[./ | |
| - | Two of the most widely used measures of wellbeing are the Center for Epidemiological Studies? | + | * [[./ |
| - | + | * [[./ | |
| - | Recent technological advances in areas such as affective computing, computer vision, and data mining are also making inroads. Technology can now help us to better understand people' | + | * [[./ |
| - | + | * [[./positive_computing/ | |
| - | Research and practice in medicine and the social sciences have shown us that measuring wellbeing and related factors not only is entirely feasible but has been well established for a number of decades. But is there any evidence that the technologies we build might actually be recruited to have a positive impact on wellbeing? Again, the work of psychologists has paved the way. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Studies in psychology have already combined the use of wellbeing measures with digital technologies for the delivery of Internet-based " | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Although psychologists have developed many proven ways to strengthen our mental resources, we spend much more time with digital technologies than we do with psychologists; | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | As an example of sheer numbers, in 2012 researchers at Facebook published a study in Nature that measured the impact of three interface-design variations on social participation behavior (Bond et al., 2012). This randomized control trial had a whopping 61 million participants and succeeded in showing how a small design change can have impressive consequences on user thinking and behavior. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | We currently go about designing new technologies without any sense of how our design decisions will impact our users' psychological health and flourishing. Imagine the effects of taking that aspect into account, even just a little bit. Wellbeing-driven improvements to digital experiences have the unique potential to effect population-wide positive change. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Developments in the field of positive computing will have the side effect of giving us a way to critically measure aspirational missions and grandiose claims. Promises such as "do no evil" and "make the world a better place" are currently little more than marketing vagaries. We ought to be better equipped to bring rigor to these kinds of aspirations, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | ==== The Walk-Through | + | |
| - | In this book, we hope to support the work of current trailblazers and to facilitate future research and practice by synthesizing multidisciplinary theory, knowledge, and methodologies into a consolidated foundation for a rigorous and prosperous field. In part I, we look at fields outside of computing, such as psychology, economics, and education, as well as at pioneering work within computing that can support or already has begun to address the improvement of wellbeing. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | We are privileged to be able to include perspectives from various experts from disciplines such as psychology, neuroscience, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | After a review of the foundational literature, in chapter 5 we propose a theoretical framework and consider appropriate methods for the research and evaluation of positive-computing technologies. We also make efforts to sketch out a scope for the field, looking not only at technologies specially built to support wellbeing, but also at the potential for wellbeing research to enhance the experience of all technology. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | In part II, we zoom in on a number of specific wellbeing factors as identified in the literature, specifically positive emotions, motivation, engagement, self-awareness, | + | |
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| - | Before coming to a close, we take a critical look at issues such as privacy, paternalism, | + | |
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| - | Finally, we envision a way forward, including a pragmatic exploration of how current and future work in positive computing might be funded and sustained. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | One of the goals of this book is to make a convincing case that considering wellbeing in the design of technology is not only entirely achievable, but also valuable, if not imperative, to building a digital environment that can make a happier and healthier (not just more productive) world. We also hope to show that to enter an age of ubiquitous computing while turning a blind eye to the influence of technology on wellbeing is to accept a kind of convenient ignorance of the real impact of our work and thus to limit our success as designers and developers. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | The potential for technology to become a vehicle for worldwide flourishing is huge, and the intentions of enthusiastic professionals are genuine, but in order for our efforts to be effective they must be grounded in evidence and open to evaluation, and, in the end, they must prove themselves. This book attempts to take a first step in what we hope will be an ongoing rigorous and dynamic interdisciplinary journey toward digital experience that is very deeply human centered. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | ==== References | + | |
| - | * Bond, R. M., Fariss, C. J., Jones, J. J., Kramer, A. D. I., Marlow, C., Settle, J. E., … Fowler, J. H. (2012). A 61-million-person experiment in social influence and political mobilization. Nature, 489(7415), 295-298. | + | |
| - | * Fordyce, M. W. (1977). Development of a program to increase happiness. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 24(6), 511-521. | + | |
| - | * Harper, R. H. R. (2010). Texture: Human expression in the age of communications overload. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. | + | |
| - | * Helliwell, J., Layard, R., & Sachs, J. (2012). World happiness report. New York: Earth Institute. | + | |
| - | * Joinson, A., McKenna, K., Postmes, T., & Reips, U.-D. (Eds.). (2007). The Oxford handbook of Internet psychology (p. 520). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. | + | |
| - | * Kahneman, D., Krueger, A. B., Schkade, D. A., Schwarz, N. S., & Stone, A. A. (2006). Would you be happier if you were richer? A focusing illusion. Science, 312(5782), 1908-1910. | + | |
| - | * Ong, A. D., & van Dulmen, M. H. M. (Eds.). (2006). Oxford handbook of methods in positive psychology. New York: Oxford University Press. | + | |
| - | * Ryback, T.?W. (2012). The U.N. happiness project. New York Times, March 28. At http://nytimes.com/ | + | |
| - | * Schueller, S. M., & Parks, A. C. (2012). Disseminating self-help: Positive psychology exercises in an online trial. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 14(3), e63. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | ~~REFNOTES~~ | + | |
| - | </WRAP> | + | |
| - | <WRAP column half> | + | |
| - | 제 1장 긍정컴퓨팅이란 무엇인가? | + | |
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| - | " | + | |
| - | 이런 메시지는 다소 야심적인 것이기는 하지만, 자신이 사랑하는 일이 분명히 사람들의 삶을 더 낫게 하는 것이기를 바라는 많은 기술자들의 중요한 목표로 자리잡았다. 기술이 개인과 사회 나아가 전 지구적인 웰빙을 개선하지 않는 것이라면, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | " | + | |
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| - | </WRAP> | + | |
| - | ====== I ====== | + | |
| - | ===== The Psychology of Wellbeing | + | |
| - | <WRAP column half> | + | |
| - | "How are you?" " | + | |
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| - | Despite its quotidian and timeless nature, this question remains a formidable research question for scientists. Some of the difficulty lies in how science should define and empirically measure variations on "being well." The search for an understanding of happiness and how to attain it is arguably a contender for the world' | + | |
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| - | This chapter looks at key elements of this understanding from the viewpoints of multiple specializations in psychology and the mind sciences. Needless to say, we could never be anything like comprehensive in one chapter about a subject to which libraries might be devoted, but we do aim to highlight core research and practices that may be particularly helpful to technology researchers and professionals looking to incorporate this knowledge into their practice. | + | |
| - | </WRAP> | + | |
| - | <WRAP column half> | + | |
| - | “안녕하세요? | + | |
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| - | 이런 질문은 일상적이고 변함없이 이어져온 것이지만, | + | |
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| - | 이 장에서는 심리학과 마음과학 분야의 여러 독특한 관점을 이해하는데 필요한 핵심요소들을 살펴본다. 당연히 우리는 도서관을 통째로 뒤져야할 정도의 주제를 한 장으로 이해하는 일은 전혀 할 수는 없고 텍 연구자나 전문가들이 이런 지식을 자신의 작업에 통합하는데 특히 도움이 될 수 있는 핵심적인 연구와 실제를 조망하려는 것이다. | + | |
| - | </WRAP> | + | |
| - | <WRAP column half> | + | |
| - | ==== Paradigms of Wellbeing | + | |
| - | Because the term happiness is so loaded with diverse interpretations (from fleeting hedonic pleasure to consumer spiritualism), | + | |
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| - | First off, we should acknowledge that there is an understanding common to all theories of wellbeing that it is contingent on certain basic material needs essential to survival, such as food, water, and shelter. What enhances wellbeing after basic needs are satisfied is more controversial and depends on how wellbeing is defined. For example, is wellbeing defined as the absence of mental dysfunction, | + | |
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| - | It's important to note that none of the theories we include herein is simply hypothetical. Each is supported by ample empirical evidence and is associated with a series of measures and validated methodologies for research. The theories don"t so much contradict each other as they do focus on different components of wellbeing. For designers of technology, the underlying philosophical standpoint is perhaps less important than the strategies arising from these theories that have been proven to improve wellbeing in practice. We call on examples of these strategies throughout the book. | + | |
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| - | We believe it would be foolhardy for us to arbitrarily select a theory and posit it as the " | + | |
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| - | For this reason, the framework we propose in chapter 5 is designed to support practitioners in grounding their efforts in the available theory and research, but without prescribing the use of a specific theory. For example, a combination of medical and positive-psychology models of wellbeing shape the work we do with the Young and Well Cooperative Research Centre. A research organization that focuses on the mental health of young people, the center is influenced by the psychologists with whom we work. Specifically, | + | |
| - | </WRAP> | + | |
| - | <WRAP column half> | + | |
| - | Paradigms of happiness | + | |
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| - | 행복(happiness)이라는 용어에 대한 해석이 (일순간의 쾌락에서 소비자적 정신론에 이르기까지) 워낙 다양해서 과학자들은 좀 더 정교하게 “인간의 최적 기능”, “최적의 정신건강”, | + | |
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| - | 먼저, 우리는 모든 웰빙 이론들이 음식이나 물, 거처와 같은 생존에 필요한 기본적인 물질적 욕구에 관해서는 공통적인 이해가 있다는 것을 인정해야 한다. 이런 기본적 욕구가 충족된 이후에 무엇이 웰빙을 향상시키는가에 관해서 많은 논란이 있고 주로 웰빙을 어떻게 정의하는가에 따라 달라진다. 예를 들어, 질병의 부재로 신체건강을 정의하는 것처럼 웰빙을 정신적 역기능의 부재로 정의하는가? | + | |
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| - | 우리가 여기서 다루는 이론들은 모두 단순히 가설적인 것이 아님을 주목해야 한다. 각각은 방대한 실증 증거의 지지를 받고 있으며 연구를 위한 일련의 측정치들과 타당한 방법론을 가지고 있다. 이 이론들은 서로 많이 상충되는 것은 아니며 다만 서로 다른 웰빙 요소들에 초점을 맞추고 있다. 텍 디자이너들에게는 실제 웰빙에 도움이 되는 것으로 입증된 이론에서 도출된 전략들이 기본적인 철학적 입장에 비해 더 중요할 것이다. 우리는 이 책 전체에서 이런 전략들의 사례를 보여줄 것이다. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | 하나의 이론을 인위적으로 선정해서 그것을 텍분야에 적용할 수 있는 “올바른” 선택이라고 주장하는 것은 쓸데없는 일이라고 믿는다. 그보다 우리가 텍 디자이너들에게 적합한 개관을 제시하면 전문가들이 자신의 맥락이나 팀의 배경, 목표, 기회 등에 가장 적합한 하나의 이론적 관점을 선택할 것이라고 믿는다(이미 그렇게 하는 사람들도 있지만). 중요한 것은 이론과 이를 지지하는 문헌들이 꼭 필요하다는 것이다. 이런 연구기반의 증거를 토대로 하지 않는다면, | + | |
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| - | 그래서, 우리가 제 5장에서 제시한 준거틀은 특정 이론에 전적으로 기대지 않고 현재 가용한 이론과 연구들을 토대로 구성함으로써 이를 바탕으로 실 사용자들이 자신들의 노력을 할 수 있게 설계한 것이다. 예를 들어, 우리가 영앤웰 합동연구센터(Young and Well Corporative Research Center)와 했던 작업은 의학모형과 긍정심리학 모형을 조합해서 수행한 것이다. 젊은이들의 정신건강에 초점을 맞춘 연구센터는 우리와 함께했던 심리학자들의 영향을 받았다. 특히 우리는 정신의학과 긍정심리학 문헌에서 이끌어 낸 회복탄력성(resilience)과 자율성(autonomy) 같은 심리적 강점을 지원하는 텍를 구축하고자 했다. 우리의 디자인 작업에는 표적고객도 참여하여 기여했다. 이 프로젝트에 새로운 파트너가 들어오면서 이들의 학술적 배경에 반응하는 작업을 했고 그 결과 웰빙을 측정하고 웰빙에 영향을 미치려는 우리의 접근법은 지속적으로 수정되었다. 이 책의 뒷부분에서 다양한 이론들이 어떻게 서로 다른 방식으로 디자인과 평가를 구축하게 되는지 더 자세히 살펴볼 것이다. | + | |
| - | </WRAP> | + | |
| - | <WRAP column half> | + | |
| - | ==== The Medical Model - Wellbeing as the Absence of Dysfunction | + | |
| - | "How does that make you feel?" asked Sigmund. Despite its wild success as a cliche, if you seek professional assistance for any number of mental health problems, you are more likely to be asked about your appetite, your sleep patterns, and your sense of hopelessness. These questions are just a few in a standard slew that will allow your doctor to determine a diagnosis using a method recognized by the American Psychiatric Association (or the equivalent in your country). | + | |
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| - | These questions are not random. They have been carefully evaluated in hundreds of studies as accurate indicators of mental illness. Health-care workers, psychiatrists, | + | |
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| - | Psychiatrists, | + | |
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| - | But the focus of this book is on designing technologies to support and promote psychological wellbeing, not specifically for those who are ill and who seek help, but for the population at large, situated as we all are along a continuum from languishing to thriving. Only then can we promote improved life experience and optimum functioning for everyone. Promotion is differentiated from prevention and treatment in the health professions. For example, Mary Ellen O' | + | |
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| - | First, psychiatric methods for diagnosis and intervention have a long history of empirical study and have been extremely successful at evolving diagnosis and treatment for many disorders. Moreover, when we work with teams of mental health professionals, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Another way to leverage a medical model for informing work in flourishing is to flip it upside down. Felicia Huppert, director of the Cambridge Well-being Institute and wellbeing adviser to the UK government, specializes in multidimensional approaches to the measure of wellbeing. In a recent study, Huppert and her colleague Timothy So (2013) examined various internationally accepted measures of depression, anxiety, and other forms of mental disorder. They aggregated common symptoms from the ICD and DSM (such as hopelessness, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | One thing to keep in mind is that if you are designing for people suffering from mental health problems or for those people close to the sufferers, you must ensure that mental health experts are at the helm of your project. There are ethical and legal responsibilities associated with online therapeutic intervention? | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Although the medical model of mental health will remain essential to work on wellbeing technology, many positive-computing projects will find the model too limited to be useful for promotion rather than treatment. In these cases, researchers often turn to hedonic and eudaimonic models of wellbeing. | + | |
| - | </WRAP> | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | <WRAP column half> | + | |
| - | 의학모형-역기능 부재로서 웰빙 | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | + | ||
| - | " | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | 이런 질문은 무작위로 하는 것이 아니다. 모두 정신질환의 정확한 지표로 수 많은 연구들?? | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | 다른 의사들과 마찬가지로 정신과의사들도 질병과 역기능, 질환을 치료한다. 만일 당신?? | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | 하지만 이 책의 초점은 심리적 웰빙을 촉진하고 지원하는 텍을 설계하는 것이며 질병이 있거나 그래서 도움을 필요로 하는 사람을 위한 것이 아니라 쇠약함과 건강함의 연속선 상에 있는 모든 사람들을 위한 것이다. 그래야 우리가 모든 사람들의 생활경험을 향상시키고 최적의 기능을 촉진할 수 있다. 촉진은 전문적인 건강분야의 치료나 예방과는 다르다. 예를 들어, 오코넬과 보트, 워너(O‘Connel, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | 첫째, 정신의학적 진단 및 개입법은 오랜 실증연구의 역사가 있고 다양한 질병의 진단과 치료에 지극히 효과적이었다. 게다가 정신건강전문가들과 팀으로 일할 때, 이들은 개입의 효과를 평가하는 잘 확립된 의학적 도구를 사용하기를 원한다(비록 촉진을 위한 것일지라도). 우울위험이 있는 젊은이를 위한 예방적 개입의 효과를 평가하는 전형적인 무선화 통제연구(randomized control trial)를 예로 들어보자( | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | 의학모형을 적용하는 또 다른 방법은 만개(flourishing)에 관한 유익한 연구에서 했던 것처럼 그 모형을 뒤집어서 활용하는 것이다. 캠브리지 웰빙연구소의 소장이자 영국정부의 웰빙자문인 후퍼트(Felicia Hupert)는 웰빙측정에서 다차원적 접근법의 전문가이다. 최근 후퍼트와 소(Hupert, & So, 2013)는 국제적으로 인정받는 다양한 우울, 불안 기타 다른 정신장애 측정치들을 검증하였다. 이들은 ICD와 DSM에서 공통 증상들을 모아서(무망감, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | 한 가지 염두에 둘 것은 만일 당신이 정신건강문제를 겪는 사람들이나 아니면 여기 근접하는 사람들을 위한 디자인을 한다면, 당신의 프로젝트에 정신건강 전문가들을 꼭 합류시켜야 한다는 것이다. 온라인 치료적 개입과 관련한 윤리적, 법적 책임의 문제가 있다. 예를 들어, 고위험군의 사람들? | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | 정신건강의 의학모형은 웰빙 텍을 위한 작업에 필수적인 것으로 남겠지만, | + | |
| - | </WRAP> | + | |
| - | <WRAP column half> | + | |
| - | ==== Hedonic Psychology - Wellbeing as the Experience of Positive Emotion | + | |
| - | When a friend asks, "How are you?" you probably don't base your response on a clinical diagnosis. We're guessing you're more likely to base it on how well your current circumstances match your intentions or simply how well you feel in that moment and have felt of late. If you're stuck working late on your taxes, your answer might be " | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Thinking of wellbeing as something attained through the fulfillment of pleasures has a long history in philosophy. In Greece, Aristippus (born c. 435 BCE) taught that our highest ambition should be to experience as much pleasure as possible. Happiness, he claimed, can be measured as the sum of one's hedonic moments. Many others have written about hedonic pleasures since then. Famously (or infamously), | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | More recently and perhaps more convincingly, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Kahneman' | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Modern industrial, architectural, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | In his book The Architecture of Happiness, philosopher Alain De Botton (2006), describes how art and architecture " | + | |
| - | </WRAP> | + | |
| - | <WRAP column half> | + | |
| - | 쾌락 심리학 - 긍정정서 경험이 웰빙이다 | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | 친구가 " | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | 웰빙을 즐거움의 충족을 통해 얻을 수 있는 어떤 것으로 보는 생각은 철학적 역사가 길다. 그리스의 철학자인 아리스토푸스( | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | 노벨 경제학상을 받은 심리학자인 카네만( | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | 카네만의 작업은 현재의 경험과 과거의 경험을 합쳐서 이 두 종류의 경험 모두를 치료적 관점에서 활용하는 것이다. 한 연구에서( | + | |
| - | 전자의 예: 행동적 표현(비언어적으로 긍정정서를 표현, 제스츄어, | + | |
| - | 후자의 예: 억제, 주의분산, | + | |
| - | . 그 결과, 현재 순간에 대한 마음챙김과 긍정적 반추는 긍정 정서를 증가시키며, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | 현대의 산업 및 건축, 디지털 디자인은 웰빙에 대한 쾌락적 관점에 크게 의존하고 있다. 인공물들은 즐거운 느낌(Don Norman(2005)이 내장수준, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | 철학자인 알랭 드 보통( | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | </WRAP> | + | |
| - | <WRAP column half> | + | |
| - | === Subjective Wellbeing - If You're Happy and You Know It, Let Us Know === | + | |
| - | Modern hedonic psychology has come a long way since Aristippus, but there are still problems with relegating evaluations of wellbeing to measures of fleeting emotions, which neglects the long-term overall stability that generally differentiates the concept of wellbeing from definitions of happiness. Kahneman, among others, has approached the need for a measure of longer-lasting characteristics by developing measures of wellbeing based on an individual' | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Subjective measures of wellbeing generally consist of three components: life satisfaction, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Most of the academic research in hedonic psychology has employed SWB measures that have shown substantial validity, as reflected by their agreement with other types of measures, such as third-party reports and biological measures of wellbeing (e.g., functional magnetic resonance imaging). A review by Ed Diener (2000), for example, highlights what was already known about subjective wellbeing and its different measures at the end of the twentieth century. Progress since then has come on several fronts, including new brain-imaging and genomic techniques (Fredrickson et al., 2013) and digitally facilitated methods for data collection and self-report. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Some research studies employ experience-sampling methods, in which emotions are repeatedly reported at random times during the day (Kahneman, 1999), and others have used diary methods (Bolger, Davis, & Rafaeli, 2003), also common in HCI research, to record memories of good and bad events or satisfaction about different aspects of life. According to these self-reports, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | On a time scale, an individual' | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | One interesting thing about the effects of external circumstance on wellbeing is our ability to adapt to it. According to the " | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Genetic predispositions and environmental influences play out at the cultural level as well. Large-scale longitudinal databases of self-reports allow researchers to compare SWB across cultures and time, noting differences in various dimensions. For example, France is consistently associated with surprisingly low levels of subjective wellbeing, but Scandinavian countries with unusually high levels. Digging deeper, Huppert and So (2013) point out that although France has the highest ranking of all countries on engagement, it has the lowest ranking on self-esteem and is in the bottom for optimism and positive relationships. They highlight this as evidence for why multidimensional measures for wellbeing are critical to understanding differences between people and nations. National measures of wellbeing together with regional and cultural differences represent an ongoing area of study (Diener & Suh, 2003; Huppert et al., 2009). Measures such as the Happy Planet Index, World Happiness Report, and Eurobarometer provide a looking glass into the differences across countries and cultures as well as into the impact of national events and policy interventions. Some of this research is discussed in the next chapter. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Measures of life satisfaction, | + | |
| - | </ | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | <WRAP column half> | + | |
| - | 주관적 웰빙- 당신이 행복하고, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | 현대 쾌락심리학은 멀리 아리스티푸스에 뿌리가 닿는다. 하지만, 일시적인 정서로 웰빙을 평가할 수 있는가하는 문제가 있다. 이는 일반적으로 장기적이고 전반적 안정성이라는 특성을 웰빙의 개념과 행복의 정의의 차이로 보기 때문이다. 특히 카네만은 장기적인 특성을 측정할 필요에 맞추어 개인의 삶에 대한 만족도를 자기보고식으로 측정하는 것을 토대로 웰빙 측정치를 개발하였다. " | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | 웰빙의 주관적 측정치는 보통 세 요소로 구성된다: | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | 쾌락심리학의 대부분 연구는 상당한 타당도를 입증한 SWB를 이용하였다. SWB는 제 3자 보고형 측정치와 같은 다른 유형의 측정도구나 생리적 웰빙측정치(예를 들면, fMRI)와 일치도가 높다. 디너( | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | 어떤 연구는 경험표집법(experience sampling)을 활용했는데, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | 시간이라는 측면에서, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | 외부환경이 웰빙에 미치는 효과에 관해 흥미로운 점은 우리가 거기에 적응하는 능력이 있다는 것이다. " | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | 유전적 성향과 환경은 문화적 수준과 마찬가지로 영향을 미친다. 대규모 자기보고 종단자료로 문화와 시대에 따른 SWB를 비교해볼 수 있는데, 여러 차원에서 차이가 있다. 예를 들어, 프랑스는 놀랄정도로 주관적 웰빙이 꾸준히 낮으며, 스칸디나비아 국가들은 특이하게 높다. 후퍼트와 소( )가 깊이 파본 결과, 프랑스는 모든 국가 중 몰입(engagement)은 가장 높지만 자존감 순위가 가장 낮고 낙관주의와 긍정적 관계는 바닥수준이었다. 이들은 이런 결과를 서로 다른 사람과 국가 간의 차이를 이해하는 데에 왜 웰빙을 다차원적으로 측정하는 것이 중요한지를 보여주는 증거로 보았다. 지역과 문화와 함께 국가 수준의 웰빙을 측정하는 것은 지속적인 연구영역이다( | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | 인생만족도나 SWB, 삶의 질 측정치들은 모두 다양한 경제사회 및 연구맥락에서 널리 사용되고 있다. 하지만 긍정적 정서가 다는 아니다. 이제 아리스토테레스의 행복론을 살펴보겠다. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | </ | + | |
| - | <WRAP column half> | + | |
| - | ==== Eudaimonic Psychology - Wellbeing as Engagement with Meaning and the Fulfillment of Potentials | + | |
| - | Few among us eschew pleasure or positive emotion. In fact, most of us spend much of the day seeking pleasures out in small ways, from that nip to the cookie jar or that session of online games to the sitcom after dinner or cuddles before bed. Positive emotions are part of a happy life, but we're nevertheless stuck with the reality that you can get too much of a good thing, and positive emotions alone may not be a complete answer to lasting wellbeing. Here enters the much celebrated notion of the " | + | |
| - | </ | + | |
| - | <WRAP column half> | + | |
| - | 행복론적 심리학 - 의미추구와 잠재력 발휘 | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | + | ||
| - | 즐거움이나 긍정정서를 멀리하는 사람은 거의 없다. 실제로, 우리 대부분은 대부분의 시간을 술을 홀짝이거나 주전부리를 하고, 식사 후에 온라인 게임과 시트콤을 보거나 포옹을 하는 등 소소한 방식으로 쾌락을 추구하는데 쓴다. 긍정 정서는 행복한 삶의 일부이지만 우리는 항상 그렇게 좋은 일만 겪을 수 없다는 현실에 살며, 긍정적 정서만으로는 장기적인 웰빙의 완벽한 해결책이 될 수 없다. 긍정적 정서경험을 넘어서 몰입과 의미, 관계, 잠재성의 영역을 포괄하는 웰빙이론들이 말하는 " | + | |
| - | </ | + | |
| - | <WRAP column half> | + | |
| - | === Self-Determination Theory -- Wellbeing as Determined by Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness === | + | |
| - | < | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Richard Ryan and Edward Deci's self-determination theory (SDT),[(See http://www.selfdeterminationtheory.org/.)] which posits that // | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | In order to be self-determined, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | SDT has many implications for design, perhaps the most conspicuous of which is its attention to intrinsic motivation and autonomy. In chapter 7, we look later at how these implications can influence the design of technologies, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Another implication for design stems from the way in which SDT deals with interpersonal, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Whereas hedonic theories of wellbeing rely on SWB research, eudaimonic theories often use measures of how well an individual does on a set of factors that support wellbeing (such as autonomy or positive relationships). Those with a eudaimonic perspective have challenged SWB models for being too narrow and a flawed indicator of healthy living. Those with a hedonic perspective, | + | |
| - | </ | + | |
| - | <WRAP column half> | + | |
| - | 자기결정 이론-자율성과 유능감, 관계성에 의한 웰빙 | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | 우리가 사람을 어떻게 동기화할 수 있는지 묻지 마세요. 잘못된 질문입니다. 사람들이 스스로 동기화할 수 있는 조건을 어떻게 조성할 수 있는지 질문하세요. | + | |
| - | - 드시( | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | + | ||
| - | 자율성과 유능감, 관계성이 동기화와 웰빙 모두의 핵심요인이라 주장하는 라이언과 드시( | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | . http:// | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | + | ||
| - | 자기결정적이려면, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | SDT는 내적 동기와 자율성에 대해 가장 확실하게 주의를 기울이고 있는 이론이어서 디자인에 대해 많은 시사점을 가지고 있다. 제 7장에서 이런 시사점이 텍 디자인에 어떻게 영향을 미칠 수 있는지를 특히 행동변화와 지지와 관련해서 살펴본다. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | 디자인을 위한 또 다른 시사점은 SDT가 대인관계와 사회문화적 요인들을 다루는 방식에 있다. SDT는 자율성과 유능감, 관계성의 상대적 중요성이 서로 다른 사회경제적 배경, 가족, 문화에 따라 같지 않다고 주장한다. 하지만, 이것이 이들 요인을 가로막는 환경적 조건은 어떤 사회나 문화적 맥락에서든 모두 부정적인 심리적 결과를 낳는다고 본다. 이런 식의 생각에 따르면, 이런 욕구를 지지하는 사회문화적 (그리고, 우리가 보기에 디지털적) 환경은 개인 간이나 개인 내 수준 모두의 분석에서 웰빙에 영향을 미칠 수 있다. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | 웰빙의 쾌락주의적 이론들이 SWB에 의존하는 것과 달리, 행복론적 이론들은 종종 개인이 웰빙을 지원하는 요인들(자율성이나 긍정적 관계같은)을 얼마나 잘하는가의 측정치를 사용한다. 행복론적 관점을 가진 사람들은 SWB 모형들의 건강한 삶의 지표가 너무 좁고 부적절하다고 비판한다. 반대로 쾌락주의적 관점을 가진 연구자들은 행복론적 준거가 주로 전문가의 정의에 의존하는 것인데 반해 SWB의 " | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | + | ||
| - | </ | + | |
| - | <WRAP column half> | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | ==== Combining Hedonic and Eudaimonic Approaches | + | |
| - | Many current theories include both hedonic and eudaimonic aspects as factors of wellbeing, such as the model by Huppert and So mentioned previously. Corey Keyes combines emotional wellbeing (hedonic aspects) with aspects of psychological and social wellbeing (eudaimonic) to describe a mental health continuum. Martin Seligman, originator and ongoing champion of the positive-psychology movement, has developed the PERMA model, which stands for **P**ositive Emotions, **E**ngagement, | + | |
| - | </WRAP> | + | |
| - | <WRAP column half> | + | |
| - | 쾌락론과 행복론적 접근의 통합 | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | + | ||
| - | 많은 현대의 이론들은 앞서 후퍼트와 소( )의 예에서 볼 수 있듯이 쾌락적 측면과 행복론적 측면을 모두 웰빙의 요소로 포함하고 있다. 키예스( | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | + | ||
| - | </WRAP> | + | |
| - | <WRAP column half> | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | === Positive Psychology - Wellbeing as Flourishing === | + | |
| - | < | + | |
| - | < | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Thanks to life-saving progress in psychology and psychiatry, many mental disorders can now be diagnosed, treated, and sometimes cured. Psychologists, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Positive psychology has matured to an extent that it now influences education, policy, management, and mental health. Journals such as the Journal of Happiness Studies and the Journal of Positive Psychology as well as conferences, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Many researchers in the area of positive psychology have translated their research findings into self-help books for public benefit. These books often have enough detail that they can go some way to informing design work and ideation. They include Seligman' | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | It's worth noting that some aspects of human behavior and thinking are easier to change than others. Christopher Peterson and Martin Seligman (2004) have identified four sets of components linked to positive mental health: talents, enablers, strengths, and outcomes. Talents are seen as those traits that are hard to change. Enablers include environmental conditions that support wellbeing, such as the right social conditions, a caring family, and so on. Most interesting from a technology perspective are strengths? | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | It was in the context of positive psychology that the terms positive computing (Sander, 2011) and positive technologies (Botella & Riva, 2012; Riva & Banos, 2012) were first introduced. Tomas Sander' | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Giuseppe Riva and Rosa Banos (2012) were the first to suggest an approach to supporting the development of tools for positive psychology. They define a " | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | + | ||
| - | In this book, although we take a deliberately broad and inclusive view of what research can and should inform positive computing, positive psychology models and methods remain some of the most relevant. We have already presented our notion of positive computing from the context of technology in articles for the engineering community (Calvo & Peters, 2013) and within HCI (an early manifestation) (Calvo & Peters, 2012). | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | The influence of positive psychology can also be found in other related fields, such as emotional intelligence, | + | |
| - | </ | + | |
| - | <WRAP column half> | + | |
| - | 긍정심리학 - 만개(flourishing)로서 웰빙 | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | 주관적 수준에서 긍정심리학의 분야는 주관적으로 가치있게 여기는 경험 즉, 웰빙, 자족(contentment), | + | |
| - | - 셀리그만과 칙센미하이( | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | + | ||
| - | 이제는 심리학과 정신의학에서 이룬 생명을 살리는 진보 덕분에 많은 정신질환을 진단하고 치료할 수 있게 되었다. 하지만, 심리학자들은 그동안 심리학이 거의 전적으로 질병에 초점을 맞추었던 것에 의문을 갖게 되었다. 셀리그만( | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | 긍정심리학은 이제 교육과 정책, 관리, 정신건강에 영향을 미칠 정도로 성숙하였다. 이런 접근법에서 Journal of Happiness Studies, Journal of Positive Psychology 같은 학술지와 학술대회, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | 많은 긍정심리학 분야의 학자들은 자신들의 연구결과를 일반인을 위한 자조서(self-help book)로 출판하였다. 이런 책들은 대개 디자인 작업과 아이디어 개발에 어떤 식으로든 도움을 받을 수 있을 정도로 자세한 설명을 제공하고 있다. 셀리그만의 만개(flourishing), | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | 인간행동과 사고는 어떤 부분은 | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | 긍정컴퓨팅(positive computing)이라는 용어( | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | 리바와 바노스( | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | 우리는 이 책에서 긍정컴퓨팅에서 어떤 연구를 할 수 있고 해야 하는가에 관해 의도적으로 광범위한 포괄적인 견해를 취하기는 했지만 긍정심리학의 모형과 방법론은 가장 적절한 것이라 할 수 있다. 우리는 이미 공학계를 위한 논문과( | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | 긍정심리학의 영향은 정서지능처럼 이미 작업장과 교육장면의 실세계에 널리 적용되는 분야에서도 찾아볼 수 있다. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | + | ||
| - | </ | + | |
| - | <WRAP column half> | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | === Emotional Intelligence === | + | |
| - | < | + | |
| - | < | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | A stroll through any bookstore can lead to a generous section on emotional intelligence (EI). Our historically narrow definition of intellectual intelligence was long in need of an upgrade, and incorporating social and emotional capacities has allowed researchers and professionals to better understand some of the sources of success, performance, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | In terms of the academic literature, socioemotional intelligence originates with the research of Jack Mayer, David Caruso, and Peter Salovey (Mayer, Caruso, & Salovey, 1999; Salovey & Mayer, 1990) and was popularized and extended by Daniel Goleman (2005). According to Goleman, EI includes the capacities of self-awareness (to recognize your own emotions), self-regulation (to control them), motivation (to have a passion for what you do), empathy (to recognize others emotions), and social skills (to manage relationships with others). | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | A number of measures of EI have been developed and evaluated. One of the most commonly used is the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2002). Having such measures means that researchers have been able design interventions such as training modules or policies and then evaluate their outcomes. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Hundreds of studies of interventions have been designed to develop EI in businesses, schools, and professional sports. Positive emotions, such as the ones we feel when receiving compliments, | + | |
| - | </ | + | |
| - | <WRAP column half> | + | |
| - | 정서지능 | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | 누구나 화를 낼 수 있다. 이것은 매우 쉽다. 하지만 적절한 사람?? | + | |
| - | - 베일런트( | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | + | ||
| - | 어떤 서점에서든 정서지능(Emotional Intelligence; | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | 학술문헌을 보면, 사회정서적 지능에 대한 연구는 마이어와 카루소, 살로비( | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | EI 측정도구가 여럿 개발되어 있고 평가도 이루어졌다. 가장 널리 쓰이는 것은 마이어-살로비-카루소 정서지능검사( | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | 기업과 학교, 스포츠 분야들에서 개발된 개입법들에 대한 많은 연구가 있다. 칭찬을 받았을 때 느끼는 것 같은 긍정적 감정은 친사회적 행동을 증가시키는 경향이 있다. 반대로, 처벌은 반사회적 행동을 증가시킨다는 경험적 증거도 있다( | + | |
| - | </ | + | |
| - | <WRAP column half> | + | |
| - | === Buddhist Psychology - a Science of the Mind === | + | |
| - | < | + | |
| - | < | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | To focus only on Western theory would be strangely remiss for a topic such as wellbeing, which has been studied systematically by Eastern philosophers for thousands of years. An interest in Buddhism for its practices such as mindfulness and meditation and for the culture of peace and compassion it represents has led to a growing integration of Buddhist philosophy into Western notions of wellbeing. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | This has been possible in part because Buddhist philosophy and practice can be investigated separate from the religious aspects of cultural rituals and belief systems in which it is nested. It is probably the relatively bare-bones, nonreligious style of Zen that has made it one of the most widely accessed sources of Buddhist thought in Western culture. In fact, the term zen has become a cliched colloquial synonym for simplicity and tranquility of mind (visit any home furnishings store for evidence). But the other essential element that makes Buddhist philosophy amenable to a partnership with Western science is its commitment to empiricism. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | The Dalai Lama is adamant that Buddhist doctrine is subject to scientific evaluation and should change in light of new evidence. He explains that "in the Buddhist investigative tradition, between the three recognized sources of knowledge? | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Psychologist Paul Gilbert (2011) puts it this way: | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | < | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | It is perhaps owing to this empirical stance that technologists interested in Buddhist philosophy are now significant enough in number to have motivated the creation of the annual " | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Jon Kabat-Zinn (2003), the originator of the Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction program, one of the most successful integrations of Buddhist and Western psychology to date (which we discuss in greater detail in chapter 9), adeptly describes Buddhist practices in untraditional and elucidating terms: "Of course, the Buddha himself was not a Buddhist. One might think of dharma as a sort of universal generative grammar, an innate set of empirically testable rules that govern and describe the generation of the inward, first-person experiences of suffering and happiness in human beings. … It is neither a belief, an ideology, nor a philosophy. Rather, it is a coherent phenomenological description of the nature of mind, emotion, and suffering and its potential release, based on highly refined practices aimed at systematically training and cultivating various aspects of mind and heart via the faculty of mindful attention." | + | |
| - | </ | + | |
| - | <WRAP column half> | + | |
| - | 불교심리학 - 마음의 과학 | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | 불교적 탐구전통의 기본 지향점은 인간의 마음과 그 다양한 기능을 이해하는 것이었다. 인간정신에 대한 깊은 통찰을 얻으면 우리의 생각과 정서 및 기저의 특성을 변환할 수 있는 방법을 찾을 수 있으며 이를 통해 온전하고 충만한 존재방식을 알아낼 수 있다는 기본적 가정이 바탕에 있었다. 이런 맥락에서 불교전통은 정신상태를 매우 풍부하게 분류하고 구체적인 정신적 특성을 정련하는 명상기법을 갖게 된 것이다. | + | |
| - | - 달라이 라마( | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | + | ||
| - | 동양철학자들이 수 천 년 간 웰빙을 체계적으로 연구한 것과 달리, 서구이론의 초점은 이상하게도 웰빙과 같은 주제를 간과했다. 마음챙김이나 명상과 같은 수련법과 평화와 연민의 문화에 대한 불교의 관심은 불교철학을 서구의 웰빙연구에 점차 통합하도록 이끌었다. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | 이는 부분적으로 불교철학과 수련법이 그것이 내재하고 있는 문화적 의례나 신념체계와 분리해서 연구할 수 있다는 점에 기인한다. 서구문화에서 불교적 사고의 원천에 가장 널리 알려진 것이 선(Zen)인데, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | 달라이 라마는 불교의 교리는 과학적 평가의 대상이며 새로운 증거가 나타나면 바뀌어야 한다는 점을 단호하게 고집한다. 그는 이렇게 설명한다. " | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | 심리학자 길버트( | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | 수 천 년 간 불교학자들과 신자들은 내관적이고 반성적인 심리적 수련법과 연민적 통찰에 기반한 윤리를 개발하고 연구했다. 이는 개인이 자신의 마음에 매우 친숙해지고, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | + | ||
| - | 불교철학에 관심이 있는 텍스트들이 이제는 연례 " | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | 마음챙김기반 스트레스감소(MBSR) 프로그램을 만든 카밧진( )은 지금까지 서구심리학과 불교를 가장 성공적으로 통합한 사람들 중의 하나인데(제 9장에서 자세히 다룬다), 불교의 수련법을 비전통적이면서 설득력있는 용어로 멋지게 설명했다: | + | |
| - | </ | + | |
| - | <WRAP column half> | + | |
| - | ==== Biology and Neuroscience - Wellbeing as Physiologically Identifiable | + | |
| - | Researchers in biology and neuroscience have used physiological and brain signals to detect and understand individual emotions. Others study biological factors that influence wellbeing (such as genes or physical health), while some investigate how those biological systems interact with environmental conditions. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | This work intersects with HCI most clearly in affective computing. Rafael' | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Neuroscience researchers seek to identify patterns of electrical and chemical activity in the brain that correlate with the emotion, cognition, and behavior we experience. In the past two decades, their research has come to include positive emotions as well as characteristics associated with increases in wellbeing, such as resilience and meditative practice. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Using brain-imaging techniques, scientists can learn more about the brain' | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | These neural correlates have been used to propose a model of awareness that includes homeostatic, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Affective and social neuroscience recognize that our brain is also shaped by what we experience. For example, studies using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) show that early stressful and nurturing environments have a strong effect on how the brain develops. Richard Davidson and others (e.g., Davidson & McEwen, 2012) have been gathering evidence that certain interventions can be intentionally designed to promote prosocial behavior and wellbeing. According to Davidson' | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | In a recent article, Davidson and colleagues (2012) discuss how such results can inform education. They posit that it should be possible to support prosocial behaviors and academic success in young people by developing the underlying elements of wellbeing through systematic contemplative practices that have been shown to be effective and to trigger neuroplastic change. They have also pointed to the potential for technologies such as videogames to be used to develop positive characteristics, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Others who study the biological factors of wellbeing look at the relationship of physical behaviors such as circadian rhythms, diet, and exercise to psychological health. For example, Ian Hickie at the University of Sydney studies the chronobiology system (our physiological clock) and its effect on depression. Even research in this area can inform work in positive computing. For example, together with Hickie we are exploring how information about sleep cycles collected from social networks might be used for detecting people at risk of depression. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Personality traits (Costa & McCrae, 1992) and genetics are other acknowledged determinants of wellbeing. During the 1990s, neuroscientists hoped to be close to identifying the genetic determinants of mental illnesses. Since then we have come to better recognize the complexity and sheer number of genes involved in both mental disorders and in flourishing, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Even the apparently predetermined factors of genetics and personality traits can be influenced and changed. For instance, we now understand that gene expressions are modified by the environment and personal experience, an area of research known as " | + | |
| - | </WRAP>< | + | |
| - | 생물학과 신경과학 - 생리적으로 확인할 수 있는 웰빙 | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | + | ||
| - | 생물학자와 신경과학자들은 생리신호와 뇌신호를 이용해서 정서를 탐지하고 이해한다. 웰빙에 영향을 주는 생물학적 요인을 연구하는 사람들도 있지만(유전자나 신체건강과 같은) 일부는 이런 생물학적 체계가 환경조건과 어떻게 상호작용하는가를 연구한다. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | 이런 작업은 정서컴퓨팅 분야에서 HCI와 가장 확실하게 교차한다. 라파엘( )의 연구팀은 HCI에서 정서를 탐지하기 위해 생리신호를 활용하며 특히 교육이나 정신건강분야에 대한 적용을 위한 연구를 한다. 예를 들어, 학생이 온라인 활동을 통해 피드백을 받을 대의 영향을 측정할 때 생리신호를 활용할 수 있다( | + | |
| - | | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | 과학자들은 뇌영상 기법으로 정서와 관련된 뇌의 구조와 과정을 더 많이 알게되었다. 예를 들어, 학자들은 처음 만나서 하는 질문인 "잘 지내?" | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | 이런 신경관련물들은 " | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | 정서 및 사회신경과학은 우리의 뇌가 우리의 경험에 따라 만들어진다는 것을 인정한다. 예를 들어, fMRI연구들은 생애초기의 스트레스와 영양환경이 뇌의 발달에 강력한 영향을 미친다는 것을 보여준다. 데이비슨 등( )은 의도적으로 친사회적 행동과 웰빙을 촉진할 수 있는 개입법을 설계할 수 있다는 증거를 모았다. 데이비슨의 연구에 따르면, 규칙적인 운동과 인지치료, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | 최근 연구에서 데이비슨 등( )은 이런 결과를 어떻게 교육장면에 쓸 수 있는지 논의했다. 그들은 이미 효과가 있으며 또한 뇌의 가소성에 따른 변화를 촉발할 수 있는 것으로 밝혀진 체계적인 명상수련을 통해 웰빙의 기본요소를 발달시킴으로써 젊은이들의 친사회적 행동과 학업성취를 지원할 수 있다고 주장한다. 또한 비디오게임과 같은 텍이 마음챙김과 공감을 포함하는 긍정적 성격을 개발하는 데에 가능성이 있다고 지적했다. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | 웰빙의 생리적 요인을 연구한 학자들은 일주기와 섭식조절, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | 성격특질( | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | 명백하게 타고난 요인인 유전이나 성격특질도 영향을 받을 수 있고 바뀔 수 있다. 예를 들어, 우리는 이제 유전자의 발현이 환경과 개인적 경험에 의해 수정될 수 있음을 알고 있는데 이런 연구 분야가 | + | |
| - | </WRAP>< | + | |
| - | === Hedonic versus Eudaimonic Wellbeing at the Molecular Level === | + | |
| - | If you're confused about whether to take a hedonic or eudaimonic approach to wellbeing, you might consider letting your cells decide. Fascinating new research (Fredrickson et al., 2013) suggests that the human genome may be more sensitive to the differences between hedonic and eudaimonic wellbeing than either our affective states or our philosophers have been. It turns out that hedonic wellbeing and eudaimonic wellbeing are correlated with different patterns of gene expression. Moreover, the molecular patterns associated with hedonic wellbeing are associated with a stress response that promotes inflammation and decreases antibody production. In contrast, eudaimonic wellbeing is associated with transcription patterns that increase antibody production. Fredrickson and her colleagues conclude: "If ‘the good life' is a long and healthy life free from the allostatic load of chronic stress, threat, and uncertainty, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | The growth in scientific and popular understanding of wellbeing over the past decade has been transformative, | + | |
| - | </ | + | |
| - | 분자수준의 쾌락적 웰빙과 행복론적 웰빙 | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | + | ||
| - | 웰빙을 어떤 접근법으로 해야할지 혼란스럽다면, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | 지난 10년 간 웰빙에 대한 대중적 이해와 과학적 이해는 많이 달라졌다. 하지만, 웰빙 이론과 텍 디자인간의 연결을 끌어내려면 정말 어떻게 해야할 것인가? 우리의 경험으로는 모든 디자인 작업의 철학적 탐구는 그것이 의식적이든 무의식적이든 디자인 결과에 강력한 영향을 미칠 수 있다. 서로 다른 웰빙 이론들이 어떻게 서로 다르면서 때로는 보완적인 디자인 접근법들을 지원할 수 있는지 보여주는 방법으로 다음 절에서는 가상적인 무인 자동차 사례를 살펴본다. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | </ | + | |
| - | ==== Wellbeing-Informed Design - a Hypothetical Case Study ==== | + | |
| - | The challenges of designing driverless cars go far beyond aerodynamics, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | * The SDT designer: Driving is about connectedness, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | * The values-sensitive designer: Driving the way you think it should be. Whereas vehicle engineers may value automation for its own sake and without question, those who love to drive may consider automation an absolute killjoy. A designer with a background in values-sensitive design (VSD) will seek to make explicit particular values, relating both to the audience and to the designers of the vehicle. To those considering overall effects on society, automation is a threat to the livelihood of the millions of people who make a living from driving. A VS designer might also focus on the serious issues of privacy posed by a driverless car, which may be of greater or lesser importance to different cultural groups. For example, since a driverless car is connected to a mapping system that tracks its coordinates, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | * The biological wellbeing designer: Driving that's good for you. A designer aware of the relationships between physical health and psychological wellbeing might seek to make better use of the copious amount of time a user spends sitting down in a car. He might incorporate exercise devices into the seating (modeling her design after the Flintstones' | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | In this chapter, we have endeavored to highlight and synthesize a number of growing research areas that inform the science of optimal human functioning. We have also sought to demonstrate how various theories of wellbeing can practically influence design decisions and technological affordances. Although the focus has been on the physical and mental health fields, in the next chapter we expand our horizon to include some of the critical fonts of discovery emerging from disciplines outside of health?from economics and policy to architecture and education. | + | |
| - | </WRAP>< | + | |
| - | 웰빙을 고려한 디자인 - 가상의 사례연구 | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | + | ||
| - | 무인자동차 역주. 이 맥락에서 무인자동차란 운전자가 따로 없는 자동차를 말한다. 원문은 driverless car이다. | + | |
| - | | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | * 쾌락주의적 디자이너: | + | |
| - | * SDT 디자이너: | + | |
| - | * 가치지향 디자이너: | + | |
| - | * 생물학적 웰빙 디자이너: | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | + | ||
| - | 이 장에서는 인간의 최적 기능이라는 과학에 도움이 되는 새로이 성장하는 연구분야의 성과을 소개하고 통합하고자 했다. 우리는 또한 다양한 웰빙이론이 실제 디자인과 텍의 구체적 행동에 어떻게 영향을 미칠 수 있는지를 예증하려고 하였다. 초점은 심신건강분야에 있지만, 다음 장에서는 우리의 지평을 넓혀서 건강이외의 분야인 경제학과 정치학에서 건축과 교육에 이르는 분야에서 나오고 있는 중요한 시사점들을 살펴볼 것이다. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | </ | + | |
| - | ==== Expert Perspectives - Technology for Mental Health | + | |
| - | <WRAP box> | + | |
| - | **Inspiring Projects? | + | |
| - | < | + | |
| - | In 1998, Inspire launched the world' | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Our experience of delivering ReachOut.com in Australia, Ireland, and the United States has provided some insight into how this might occur. ReachOut.com reaches 1.6 million unique visitors each year in Australia alone and has the potential to reach many more and for considerably lower cost than traditional commercial and government mental health services. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | One of our biggest challenges in reaching this goal of a twenty-first- century mental health system will be to ensure that the user is placed at the center of that system and to build that system around mental health promotion. We can achieve these things by better integrating technology that enables people to manage and monitor their own wellbeing and assist them with evidence-based advice for personalized mental health care. As one of the pioneers in e?mental health, we are committed to this technology. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | We recognize that we can't do it alone, however, and need to form partnerships with researchers and policymakers to build the evidence for these new services and then take them to scale. One of the challenges we continue to face is that " | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Our experience of delivering e?mental health services for more than 15 years is that technology continues to provide exciting opportunities to improve and promote mental health. Taking advantage of these opportunities will require a commitment to research and collaboration between technical and clinical professionals and ultimately a commitment to developing a twenty-first-century mental health system that will enable all people to thrive. | + | |
| - | </WRAP> | + | |
| - | </ | + | |
| - | sidebar 1 | + | |
| - | </ | + | |
| - | <WRAP box> | + | |
| - | **Inspiring Projects? | + | |
| - | < | + | |
| - | There is an increasing interest among researchers, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | How can subjective wellbeing be measured? Skeptics sometimes say that subjective experiences such as happiness cannot in principle be measured. Yet most of us are able to indicate how much we enjoyed a meal or a movie or rate our level of pain on a scale from 0 to 10 when asked by a doctor. Likewise, it is widely accepted that individuals can reliably rate symptoms of distress, such as sadness or anxiety, so there is no reason to suppose they cannot also reliably rate positive experiences. Perhaps more compellingly, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | The field of subjective wellbeing has also received a great boost from neuroscience because it can be demonstrated that when people report particular experiences, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Since it is important to measure subjective wellbeing, and it is clear that it can be done, we need to consider exactly what should be measured. Studies have traditionally used generic single-item questions about happiness or life satisfaction. But wellbeing is more than a positive feeling or a positive life evaluation. It involves both feeling good and functioning effectively. Feeling and functioning can be measured using questions with different timeframes, including ongoing experiences, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Importantly, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | As distinguished economist Gus O' | + | |
| - | </WRAP> | + | |
| - | </ | + | |
| - | sidebar | + | |
| - | </ | + | |
| - | ==== Note ==== | + | |
| - | 1. See http:// | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | </ | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | </ | + | |
| - | ==== References | + | |
| - | AlZoubi, O., Hussain, M. S., D' | + | |
| - | Bolger, N., Davis, A., & Rafaeli, E. (2003). Diary methods: Capturing life as it is lived. Annual Review of Psychology, 54(1), 579-616. | + | |
| - | Botella, C., & Riva, G. (2012). The present and future of positive technologies. Cyberpsychology, | + | |
| - | Boyce, C. J., & Wood, A. M. (2011). Personality prior to disability determines adaptation: Agreeable individuals recover lost life satisfaction faster and more completely. Psychological Science, 22(11), 1397-1402. | + | |
| - | Brickman, P., Coates, D., & Janoff-Bulman, | + | |
| - | Calvo, R. A., & Peters, D. (2012). Positive computing: technology for a wiser world. Interactions (New York, N.Y.), 19(2), 28-31. | + | |
| - | Calvo, R. A., & Peters, D. (2013). Promoting psychological wellbeing: loftier goals for new technologies. IEEE Technology and Society, 32(4), 19-21. | + | |
| - | Caspi, A., Sugden, K., Moffitt, T. E., Taylor, A., Craig, I. W., Harrington, H., … Poulton, R. (2003). Influence of life stress on depression: Moderation by a polymorphism in the 5-HTT gene. Science Signaling, 301(5631), 386-389. | + | |
| - | Clarke, G. N., Hornbrook, M., Lynch, F., Polen, M., Gale, J., Beardslee, W., … Seeley, J. (2001). A randomized trial of a group cognitive intervention for preventing depression in adolescent offspring of depressed parents. Archives of General Psychiatry, 58(12), 1127-1134. | + | |
| - | Costa, P., & McCrae, R. (1992). The five-factor model of personality and its relevance to personality disorders. Journal of Personality Disorders, 6, 343-359. | + | |
| - | Craig, A. D. B. (2009a). Emotional moments across time: A possible neural basis for time perception in the anterior insula. Philosophical Transactions B, 364(1525), 1933-1942. | + | |
| - | Craig, A. D. B. (2009b). How do you feel-now- The anterior insula and human awareness. Nature Reviews, Neuroscience, | + | |
| - | Davidson, R., Dunne, J., Eccles, J. S., Engle, A., Greenberg, M., Jennings, P., … Vago, D. (2012). Contemplative practices and mental training: Prospects for American education. Child Development Perspectives, | + | |
| - | Davidson, R. J., & McEwen, B. S. (2012). Social influences on neuroplasticity: | + | |
| - | De Botton, A. (2006). The Architecture of Happiness. New York: Pantheon. | + | |
| - | Diener, E. (2000). Subjective well-being: The science of happiness and a proposal for a national index. American Psychologist, | + | |
| - | Diener, E., Lucas, R. E., & Scollon, C. N. (2006). Beyond the hedonic treadmill: Revising the adaptation theory of well-being. American Psychologist, | + | |
| - | Diener, E., & Suh, E. M. (2003). National differences in subjective well-being. In Well-being: The foundations of hedonic psychology (pp. 434-450). New York: Russell Sage Foundation. | + | |
| - | Fredrickson, | + | |
| - | Gilbert, P., & Choden (2013). Mindful compassion. London: Constable & Robinson. | + | |
| - | Goleman, D. (2005). Emotional intelligence: | + | |
| - | Gorini, A., Gaggioli, A., Vigna, C., & Riva, G. (2008). A second life for eHealth: Prospects for the use of 3-D virtual worlds in clinical psychology. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 10(3), e21. | + | |
| - | Hassenzahl, M., & Beu, A. (2001). Engineering joy. IEEE Software, 18(February), | + | |
| - | His Holiness the 14th Dalai Lama of Tibet. (2005). " | + | |
| - | Huppert, F., Marks, N., Clark, A., Siegrist, J., Stutzer, A., Vittersø, J., … Wahrendorf, M. (2009). Measuring well-being across Europe: Description of the ESS well-being module and preliminary findings. Social Indicators Research, 91(3), 301-315. | + | |
| - | Huppert, F. A., & So, T. T. C. (2013). Flourishing across Europe: Application of a new conceptual framework for defining well-being. Social Indicators Research, 110(3), 837-861. | + | |
| - | Kabat-Zinn, J. (2003). Mindfulness-based interventions in context: Past, present, and future. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 10(2), 144-156. | + | |
| - | Kahneman, D. (1999). Objective happiness. In D. Kahneman, E. Diener, & N. Schwarz (Eds.), Well-being: The foundations of hedonic psychology (pp. 3-25). New York: Russell Sage Foundation. | + | |
| - | Kahneman, D., Diener, E., & Schwarz, N. (Eds.). (1999). Well-being: The foundations of hedonic psychology. New York: Russell Sage Foundation. | + | |
| - | Mayer, G. R. (1995). Preventing antisocial behavior in the schools. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 28(4), 467-478. | + | |
| - | Mayer, J. D., Caruso, D. R., & Salovey, P. (1999). Emotional intelligence meets traditional standards for an intelligence. Intelligence, | + | |
| - | Mayer, J., Salovey, P., & Caruso, D. (2002). Emotional intelligence test. Toronto: MSCEIT. | + | |
| - | Nijholt, A., Tan, D., Pfurtscheller, | + | |
| - | Norman, D. A. (2005). Emotional design: Why we love (or hate) everyday things. New York: Basic Books. | + | |
| - | O' | + | |
| - | Payton, J., Wardlaw, D., Graczyk, P. A., Bloodworth, M. R., Tompsett, C. J., & Weissberg, R. P. (2000). Social and emotional learning: A framework for promoting mental health and reducing risk behavior in children and youth. Journal of School Health, 70(5), 179-185. | + | |
| - | Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2004). Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification (p. 800). Oxford: Oxford University Press. | + | |
| - | Pluess, M., & Belsky, J. (2013). Vantage sensitivity: | + | |
| - | Pour, P. A., Hussain, M. S., AlZoubi, O., D' | + | |
| - | Quoidbach, J., Berry, E. V., Hansenne, M., & Mikolajczak, | + | |
| - | Riva, G., & Banos, R. (2012). Positive technology: Using interactive technologies to promote positive functioning. Cyberpsychology, | + | |
| - | Riva, G., Cipresso, P., Mantovani, F., Dakanalis, A., & Gaggioli, A. (2013). New technologies for improving the psychological treatment of obesity. Berlin: Springer. | + | |
| - | Salovey, P., & Mayer, J. D. (1990). Emotional intelligence. Imagination, | + | |
| - | Sander, T. (2011). Positive computing. In R. Biswas-Diener (Ed.), Positive psychology as social change (pp. 309-326). New York: Springer. | + | |
| - | Seligman, M. (2002). Authentic happiness: Using the new positive psychology to realize your potential for lasting fulfillment. New York: Free Press. | + | |
| - | Seligman, M. E. P., & Csikszentmihalyi, | + | |
| - | Vaillant, G. E. (2012). Positive mental health: Is there a cross-cultural definition- World Psychiatry: Official Journal of the World Psychiatric Association (WPA), 11(2), 93-99. | + | |
| - | </ | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | ====== | + | |
| - | <WRAP column half> | + | |
| - | Let's be honest: engineers and computer scientists aren't known for advanced social skills or for their perspicacity with regard to human emotions. Some would also be quick to point out we have a weakness for letting technological interests drive all our decision making. But shameless stereotyping aside, we believe that when it comes to designing for wellbeing, no matter what field you're in, it's critical not to go it alone. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | No attempt to influence or investigate issues as multifaceted as human psychological wellbeing should be undertaken without a rigorously multidisciplinary approach. Neglecting human experience is bad for technology design generally, but it is totally counterproductive for positive computing. Truly human-centered design for positive computing will rely on interdisciplinary teams and collaboration. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | In addition to work in psychology, medicine, and brain science, our contemporary understanding of wellbeing has been contingent on progress in anthropology, | + | |
| - | </WRAP> | + | |
| - | <WRAP column half> | + | |
| - | ===== Economics | + | |
| - | Economics is surprisingly, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Economics may also help to explain the recent growth of lay interest in wellbeing psychology. Richard Ryan and Edward Deci (2001) have identified two periods of peaking interest in wellbeing in the history of psychology: the 1960s and the 2000s. They note that these two periods coincide with times of affluence. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Despite the recent global financial crisis, those in industrialized Western society are still in general relatively wealthier than we ever have been before? | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | A seminal study by Richard Easterlin (1974) famously provided early evidence that the link between wealth and happiness is weaker than popular culture would have us think. Easterlin found that wealthier people within a country do tend to be more satisfied with their lives at any given point in time, but that happiness does not increase with economic growth over time (a finding henceforth dubbed the " | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | It's also worth noting that, according to Easterlin' | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | As Easterlin himself noted, his original work had some limitations. The study combined data from 29 Gallup Poll?type surveys and produced a single measure of self-reported wellbeing on a scale from 1 to 10. Forty years later, approaches to measuring wellbeing have evolved significantly. Researchers such as Felicia Huppert and Timothy So have studied such measures seeking multidimensional approaches for greater validity and explicatory power. We look more closely at these measures in the methodologies chapter. But for now we consider how findings in economics have influenced change in public policy. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Easterlin' | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Furthermore, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | It's hard to avoid speculation that the growing interest in wellbeing in the Western world is at least in part due to a gradual societal realization that money doesn' | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | For instance, after a seminal study published in Science (Golder & Macy, 2011) showed that social media data could be used to study moods over time, many other studies plundering the wealth of publically available social interaction data have followed in aid of better understanding the human experience. One such study (Mitchell, Harris, Frank, Dodds, & Danforth, 2013) combined geotagged tweets (80 million words in total) with demographic and health information from annual surveys. They used the data to build taxonomies that describe the happiness of states and cities across the United States, to correlate demographic information with wellbeing, and to correlate linguistic features to levels of education and even obesity rates. These studies provide evidence that public social media data can be used to investigate communities' | + | |
| - | </WRAP> | + | |
| - | <WRAP column half> | + | |
| - | ===== Government and Policy: Increasing Gross National Happiness and General Wellbeing | + | |
| - | < | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | < | + | |
| - | </blockquote> | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | In an influential paper, psychologists Ed Diener and Martin Seligman (2004) argued that " | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | In 2007, a group of partners including the European Commission, the European Parliament, and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development hosted a high-level conference called " | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | In 2008, French president Nicolas Sarkozy commissioned a panel of experts, including Nobel Prize? | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | In 2011, the United Kingdom launched the National Well-Being Programme, a part of the Office for National Statistics, with the motto " | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Although the United States has been slower to consider measures beyond gross domestic product, individual cities and counties have established regional measurement initiatives to inform local leadership, and the federal government established a panel to investigate measures of happiness. US commercial initiatives are also collecting data in ways similar to government efforts in other countries: The Gallup? | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | But policy change has by no means been relegated to Europe and North America. In fact, the seeds of this movement were planted by the king of Bhutan, who in 1972 declared that gross national happiness was more important than gross national product. For decades, the country took to measuring a multidimensional gross national happiness index and to spreading the word internationally. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Although the current prime minister of Bhutan has set aside focus on gross national happiness, the idea of alternative metrics for national progress has had global impact. In 2012 at a meeting entitled " | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | In the same year, the United Nations proclaimed March 20 the " | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | But, of course, measurement is only half the battle. Governments are also engaged in determining how best to use these measures in public policy, and we in the technology field can learn much by observing their various strategies. Encouraging healthy behavior is one approach policymakers have often taken. The UK government' | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Educating the public as to things they can do to improve their own wellbeing is another approach. In 2008, the UK Government Office for Science commissioned a set of evidence-based actions people can take to improve their psychological wellbeing. The idea was to do for mental health what a campaign promoting "five a day" (of fruits and vegetables) had done for physical health. The result was a thorough review (Denham, Beddington, & Cooper, 2008) of extensive research into wellbeing consolidated into "five ways to well-being": | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Initiatives will continue to emerge and evolve, and they all will face the challenge of deciding how to be guided by new information toward the development of effective and equitable public policy that respects both privacy and autonomy. As with any government decision, the line between where a government should and shouldn' | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Even in the United States, where the population is arguably among the most publically averse to tax increases and government intervention, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Bernanke' | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Where there is much to be learned from the methods and strategies employed in economics and public policy, where keywords such as nudge, expenditure, | + | |
| - | </ | + | |
| - | <WRAP column half> | + | |
| - | ===== Education: | + | |
| - | It's estimated that at any given point in time 10 to 20 percent of youth will suffer a mental health problem (O' | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | In a recent report of the US National Research Foundation (O' | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Although the focus of the report is prevention, it also embarks on an analysis of mental health promotion through supportive families and schools?the very environments where young people develop the traits that will support their wellbeing and help them manage negative emotion and behavior throughout their lives. The report highlights evidence that the best strategies for preventing cognitive, emotional, and behavioral disorders are early intervention. It calls on the nation first to support those at risk, providing them with the best evidence-based interventions available, and then to promote the development of socioemotional skills in children and young adults more generally. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Just as modern economists and politicians are looking to " | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | In fact, it is far more likely to find school-based peer-reviewed evaluations of wellbeing initiatives in journals such as Addiction than in education publications such as the Journal of Educational Psychology. The term wellbeing for example appears in only twenty articles in the latter, and half of them are from before 1950. The term mathematics, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Without any doubt, society needs the scientists and engineers who will address the serious challenges of energy, climate change, and future technologies essential to our survival. And, of course, it's also critical that future generations gain the sophisticated understanding in these areas that will allow them to tackle twenty-first-century issues. But it seems that socioemotional skills? | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | From the policy perspective, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Despite the minimal attention given wellbeing in academic education research, new approaches geared at integrating socioemotional learning into the curriculum are emerging at the level of practice and within policy groups. For example, all children from kindergarten to sixth grade in New South Wales, Australia, follow a curriculum titled " | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | | + | |
| - | * Inner Resilience Program | + | |
| - | * Mindful Schools Program | + | |
| - | * MindUP Program | + | |
| - | * Still Quiet Place Program | + | |
| - | * Stressed Teens Program | + | |
| - | * Wellness Works in Schools Program | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | A RAND technical report titled Interventions to Improve Student Mental Health (Stein et al., 2012) provides an interesting review of the literature on such interventions written for policymakers in California. Prevention and early-intervention initiatives are grouped into those aiming to reduce stigma and discrimination, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Others outside universities and governments have also recognized the importance of such research. The largest philanthropic organization in the world, the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, recently funded a project led by neuroscientist Richard Davidson aimed at developing mindfulness in children.8 We discuss this project and other such schools projects in part II. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Of course, the difficulty in attending more seriously to this area of development in schools is compounded by a modern reliance on test scores as measures of student and teacher competence. Yet, remarkably, research shows that, in addition to making happier, safer, more resilient kids, these wellbeing programs also increase their academic performance. A recent meta-analysis (Durlak, Weissberg, Dymnicki, Taylor, & Schellinger, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | This relationship is perhaps not surprising since positive emotions have been linked to better problem solving and enhanced creativity. Don Norman, among others, has highlighted the importance of designing for emotion (2005), much of which can be applied to the design of learning technologies. In Dorian' | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | As such, developing wellbeing in the learning environment also benefits from a better understanding of the dynamics of emotion involved in learning experiences as they occur. Educational psychology has tended to focus heavily on the cognitive aspects of learning rather than on the affective phenomena involved. Nevertheless, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | The control-value theory of academic emotions (Pekrun, 2006) provides a way to analyze the antecedents and consequences of what students feel in learning situations. The theory assumes that appraisals of control (what is under a student' | + | |
| - | </WRAP> | + | |
| - | <WRAP column half> | + | |
| - | ===== Learning from Learning Technologies | + | |
| - | Both of us have spent much of our professional careers developing, evaluating, and researching technologies for learning. One interesting thing about these technologies is that they represent an area in which researchers have begun to combine emotions and technology in at least two ways. Despite the focus on STEM, there are at least two areas in which wellbeing measures have already been incorporated. First, at the convergence of affective computing and learning, we see experimental research in the use of emotionally aware, intelligent tutoring systems? | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Second, at the intersection of education, technology, and mental health, there exists a body of research on various Internet-based and technology-delivered interventions in schools. For example, one program on alcohol education (Champion, Newton, Barrett, & Teesson, 2012; Newton, Teesson, Vogl, & Andrews, 2010) randomly allocated 764 young teenagers from across ten schools to an Internet course or to a standard face-to-face health class. After 12 months, those who did the online course were found to be more knowledgeable, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | With regard to learning that occurs outside of schools, researchers in the area of interaction design for children (IDC) have been pioneering in their attention to factors of wellbeing. Svetlana Yarosh and her colleagues (Yarosh, Radu, Hunter, & Rosenbaum, 2011) surveyed the papers published in each year of the IDC conference from 2002 to 2010 and sought to understand the type of behaviors and qualities the IDC community tried to promote in children. These behaviors and qualities were broadly grouped into social interaction and connectedness, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Education, economics, and policy can help us to measure or influence wellbeing across a group or population, but these fields do less to explain why variations in wellbeing occur in the first place. To understand this higher-level question, we have to look at how various societal and cultural influences shape our wellbeing and our understandings of it. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Social Science: Wellbeing as a Changing Cultural Construct Shaped by Technology | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | A purely psychological analysis aims to understand wellbeing as an internal positive state we aim to attain. A sociocultural approach, in contrast, places more focus on how the definition of wellbeing changes over time and across cultures. Technology and Psychological Well-Being (Amichai-Hamburger, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | George Rodman and Katherine Fry's (2009) historical account highlights wellbeing as a historical and cultural construct. The authors focus on wellbeing' | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Social media in particular have made whole new social behaviors possible with both positive and negative consequences to wellbeing. Social media researcher danah boyd, of Harvard and Microsoft Research, points to the life-saving potential provided in parallel with challenges posed by social media with regard to the wellbeing of youth (see her sidebar in this chapter for more detail). | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Although economics has helped to uncover the links (or lack thereof) between wealth, technology, and wellbeing, knowing that more wealth or more advanced personal technology hasn't made society much happier doesn' | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | For example, one study that surveyed a cross-section of 22 European countries (Frey, Benesch, & Stutzer, 2007) shows a negative correlation between TV ownership/viewership and wellbeing (more TV time was linked to lower life satisfaction). Another study (Dolan, Metcalfe, Powdthavee, Beale, & Pritchard, 2008) suggests the opposite? | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | There is obviously much we need to learn about which technologies can support wellbeing, when, in what circumstances, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Moving away from the social sciences and toward examples of application, | + | |
| - | </WRAP> | + | |
| - | <WRAP column half> | + | |
| - | ===== Business and Organizational Psychology?Wellbeing in the Workplace | + | |
| - | In the past 20 years, growing research evidence has shown that happier employees can be more productive, innovative, and empathic with their clients (Goleman, 1998; Linley, Harrington, & Garcea, 2010). This is part of the reason why an increasing number of corporations and nongovernment organizations have begun turning to wellbeing-related training and initiatives in the form of emotional intelligence training, mindfulness and meditation events, as well as changes intended to improve work?life balance, social connectedness, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | From the perspective of positive computing, companies are likely to provide many opportunities because they are significant users of online and technology-supported training. In addition, companies now rely on enterprise-level social media and communication platforms, many of which will likely be found to benefit from and feed into wellbeing-informed design. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Human-resource systems are rather sophisticated beasts, recording and analyzing employee performance data and creating strategic maps to guide employee skill sets (knowledge capital) to adapt to changing needs. Yet, there is much room for improvement in how they manage mental capital, or an organization' | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | In countries such as the United Kingdom, employers are liable for the consequences of work-related stress. One of the ways of addressing this liability (and helping employees) is to offer counseling services. This approach has persuaded employers to provide training and counseling programs, often delivered by private companies, which arguably has bootstrapped an industry in wellbeing. The University of Sydney, for example, has a Health and Wellbeing Program that includes professional counseling, self-help books and materials, peer-support programs, and a number of health initiatives (e.g., Weight Watchers and a smoke-free environment). | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Just as new training requirements arising from health and safety compliance fed the e-learning industry, the same kind of energy toward improved employee wellbeing can now drive an industry of positive computing? | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | One final way to approach the role of technology in our experience of wellbeing is by viewing technology as part of our environment. Fortunately, | + | |
| - | </WRAP> | + | |
| - | <WRAP column half> | + | |
| - | ===== Design and Architecture: Places and Things That Improve Wellbeing | + | |
| - | In The Architecture of Happiness (2006), Alain de Botton writes about ways in which art and architecture have been used over the ages to influence what we feel, think, and do. A cathedral, for example, in its very proportions, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Environmental psychology provides a methodological approach to studying the affordances and effects of place (Bell, Greene, Fisher, & Baum, 2005). The field connects research on the physical environment with research on health and wellbeing, investigating ways in which certain designs promote, hinder, or completely rule out certain behaviors. Topics within their sphere range from how the availability of informal spaces can increase a sense of community and reduce criminal behavior to how high ceilings lead to more open-ended thinking (known as the " | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Although environmental psychology focuses on physical rather than digital environments, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Recent work by researchers Pieter Desmet and Anna Pohlmeyer in what they term " | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | . . . | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | In chapters 2 and 3, we have looked at some of the seminal wellbeing-related work in a diversity of disciplines. The unique perspectives and opportunities that arise from multidisciplinary views will act as rich resources of information as well as fertile areas of future application as work in positive computing moves forward. As always, drawing from and working across multiple disciplines will pose challenges to communication as well as to funding mechanisms, but the rewards are great, and they come in the form of unique solutions, broader perspectives, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | In the next chapter, we come back to base and review some of the ways in which researchers in engineering and computer science have already begun to consider wellbeing issues as part of their work in technology. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | + | ||
| - | </WRAP> | + | |
| - | <WRAP column half> | + | |
| - | ===== Expert Perspectives | + | |
| - | <WRAP box> | + | |
| - | When Worlds Collide: The Power of Cooperation in Wellbeing Science | + | |
| - | {{jane_burns.jpg |Figure 3.1}} | + | |
| - | Jane Burns, Young and Well Cooperative Research Centre | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Imagine a research center where young people work with scientists, service providers, technologists, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | The Young and Well CRC fundamentally puts young people in the innovation "hot seat," directly asking how they use technology to enhance their wellbeing and seeking to understand what other technology, new or emerging, they suggest would be beneficial. This model tips on its head the idea that "the answer" | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | A philosophy embraced by the Young and Well CRC and its partners is that for true innovation to occur, young people must work with scientists, innovators, technologists, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | That said, the challenges pale into insignificance when you imagine a world where technologies are embraced in a way that supports the wellbeing of young people. In many ways, our young people are already setting the technologies and wellbeing agenda. You can see it in the way they are building online social networks that are accepting of diversity, are issues based, and, when built appropriately, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | The challenge for each of us?whether a psychiatric epidemiologist, | + | |
| - | </WRAP> | + | |
| - | \\ | + | |
| - | \\ | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | <WRAP box> | + | |
| - | Making Sense of Increased Visibility | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | < | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | + | ||
| - | Technology allows us to see into the lives of more people today than ever before in history. Because of the public nature of major social media platforms, it's often possible to see traces of strangers' | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Through Twitter, I can watch a group of Indonesian teens talk about their love of a particular boy band, and on Instagram I can view the photographic trail of a Brazilian twenty-something as she documents her vacation. I can use Google Translate to get a sense of what Chinese youth are talking about on Weibo, and I can traverse profiles of Russian friends and families on VKontakte without even knowing the language. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | These images, networks, and status updates never tell the whole story, but they offer glimpses into the lives of people who are quite different than those I meet every day in my personal and professional life. They are not people whom I would encounter by accident, but social media create a digital street for me to stroll down. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | I relish the opportunity to learn about the world from varied vantage points, but I also struggle with a slew of ethical challenges that I face as I think about how to make sense of what I see. How do I know that my interpretation of what I see is accurate? In my research on American youth, I regularly found that teens would encode what they wrote. They were happy to make their content publicly accessible while limiting access to the meaning of what they shared. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | I don't always have the contextual information or know the relevant cues to meaningfully interpret the traces that are in front of me. And although I try hard not to be judgmental of what I see, I know plenty of people take what they see out of context. What do I do when what I see is deeply problematic? | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | What I have access to are simply traces from people whom I don't know and may not be able to identify even if I tried. Many of the most painful pleas come from people who are anonymous online. Are they really experiencing what they state? Is there anyone watching? Are they going to be able to get help? | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | The visibility of people' | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Rather than looking at social media with disdain, it's important to start by opening our eyes. I recommend that you turn to your favorite platform, whether it's Twitter or Tumblr, and spend time looking at the traces left by strangers. Rather than being horrified or disgusted, ask yourself a simple question: What is it about this person' | + | |
| - | </ | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Notes | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | 1. From the website beyond-gdp.eu. | + | |
| - | 2. See happyplanetindex.org. | + | |
| - | 3. See well-beingindex.com. | + | |
| - | 4. From un.org/ | + | |
| - | 5. From the Behavior Insights Team website at gov.uk/ | + | |
| - | 6. See Bernanke' | + | |
| - | 7. See "Nic Marks: The Happy Planet Index," | + | |
| - | 8. For this project, see news.wisc.edu/ | + | |
| - | </ | + | |
| - | <WRAP column half> | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | ===== References | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | | + | |
| - | * "Ban: New economic paradigm needed, including social and environmental progress." | + | |
| - | * Bell, P. A., Greene, T., Fisher, J. D., & Baum, A. (Eds.). (2005). Environmental psychology. Vol. 4. 5th ed. Fort Worth, TX: Routledge. | + | |
| - | * Bruni, L., & Porta, P. L. (Eds.). (2007). Handbook on the economics of happiness. Malden, MA: Edward Elgar. | + | |
| - | * Calvo, R. A., & D' | + | |
| - | * Calvo, R. A., & D' | + | |
| - | * Champion, K. E., Newton, N. C., Barrett, E. L., & Teesson, M. (2012). A systematic review of school-based alcohol and other drug prevention programs facilitated by computers or the Internet. Drug and Alcohol Review, 2013(32), 115-123. | + | |
| - | * De Botton, A. (2006). The architecture of happiness. New York: Pantheon. | + | |
| - | * Denham, J., Beddington, J., & Cooper, C. (2008). Mental capital and well-being project. London: UK Office for Science. | + | |
| - | * Desmet, P. M. A., Pohlmeyer, A. E., & Forlizzi, J. (2013). Special issue editorial: Design for subjective well-being. International Journal of Design, 7(3). Retrieved from http:// | + | |
| - | * Diener, E., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2004). Beyond money. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 5(1), 1-31. | + | |
| - | * Dolan, P., Metcalfe, R., Powdthavee, N., Beale, A., & Pritchard, D. (2008). Innovation and well-being. Innovation index working paper. London: Nesta. | + | |
| - | * Durlak, J. A., Weissberg, R. P., Dymnicki, A. B., Taylor, R. D., & Schellinger, | + | |
| - | * Easterlin, R. A. (1974). Does rapid economic growth improve the human lot- Some empirical evidence. In P. A. David & M. W. Reder (Eds.), Nations and households in economic growth: Essays in honor of Moses Abramovitz (vol. 8, pp. 88-125). New York: Academic Press. | + | |
| - | * Frey, B. S., Benesch, C., & Stutzer, A. (2007). Does watching TV make us happy- Journal of Economic Psychology, 28(3), 283-313. | + | |
| - | * Golder, S. A., & Macy, M. W. (2011). Diurnal and seasonal mood vary with work, sleep, and day length across diverse cultures. Science, 333(6051), 1878-1881. | + | |
| - | * Goleman, D. (1998). Working with emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam. | + | |
| - | * Harper, R. H. R. (2012). Texture: Human expression in the age of communications overload (p. 320). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. | + | |
| - | * Helliwell, J., Layard, R., & Sachs, J. (2012). World happiness report. New York: Earth Institute. | + | |
| - | * Kahneman, D., Diener, E., & Schwarz, N. (Eds.). (1999). Well-being: The foundations of hedonic psychology. New York: Russell Sage Foundation. | + | |
| - | * Kavetsos, G., & Koutroumpis, | + | |
| - | * Linley, A., Harrington, S., & Garcea, N. (Eds.). (2010). Oxford handbook of positive psychology and work. New York: Oxford University Press. | + | |
| - | * Mitchell, L., Harris, K. D., Frank, M. R., Dodds, P. S., & Danforth, C. M. (2013). The geography of happiness: Connecting Twitter sentiment and expression, demographics, | + | |
| - | * Newton, N. C., Teesson, M., Vogl, L. E., & Andrews, G. (2010). Internet-based prevention for alcohol and cannabis use: Final results of the Climate Schools course. Addiction, 105(4), 749-759. | + | |
| - | * Norman, D. A. (2005). Emotional design: Why we love (or hate) everyday things. New York: Basic Books. | + | |
| - | * O' | + | |
| - | * Pekrun, R. (2006). The control-value theory of achievement emotions: Assumptions, | + | |
| - | * Peters, D. (2014). Interface design for learning: Design strategies for learning experiences. San Francisco: New Riders. | + | |
| - | * Rodman, G., & Fry, K. G. (2009). Communication technology and psychological well-being: Yin, yang, and the golden mean of media effects. In Y. Amichai-Hamburger (Ed.), Technology and psychological well-being (pp. 9-33). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. | + | |
| - | * Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2001). On happiness and human potentials: A review of research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 141-166. | + | |
| - | * Schutz, P. A., & Pekrun, R. (2007). Emotion in education. Salt Lake City: Academic Press. | + | |
| - | * Stein, B. D., Sontag-Padilla, | + | |
| - | * Thaler, R. H., & Sunstein, C. R. (2008). Nudge: Improving decisions about health, wealth, and happiness. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. | + | |
| - | * Yarosh, S., Radu, I., Hunter, S., & Rosenbaum, E. (2011). Examining values: An analysis of nine years of IDC research. In 10th International Conference on Interaction Design and Children. IDC 2011 (pp. 136-144). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan. | + | |
| - | </ | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | \\ | + | |
| - | \\ | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | ====== | + | |
| - | <WRAP column half> | + | |
| - | Computers should be able to do X. Current techniques only do X-I. We contribute a technique that does I. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | It's not exactly an inspiring narrative, but this humble argument has nevertheless fueled incremental technological progress over the past century and ushered us through three generations of computing and into the Internet of Things we find ourselves moving today. As devices get embedded into the fabric of our lives and become inextricable parts of the experiences that shape us, their inevitable impact on our wellbeing grows ever greater. Yet engineering hangs onto technology-focused approaches. Sometimes humans are included in the equation, although mainly as comparison points: | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Computers should be able to do X. Humans do X very well. Current techniques do only X-I. We contribute a technique that does I by emulating the way a human does it. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | I (Rafael), for one, have used both of these arguments in my work (just replace X with " | + | |
| - | </WRAP> | + | |
| - | <WRAP column half> | + | |
| - | ===== Ubiquitous Computing: Opportunities and Challenges for Wellbeing | + | |
| - | Two decades ago in a seminal paper, Mark Weiser (1991) coined the term ubiquitous computing, now affectionately abbreviated to " | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Weiser' | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Some would undoubtedly argue that because many of these technologies are designed to support safety, productivity, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Two decades have gone by since the ubicomp vision entered the world, and we now have what it takes to move genuine human-centeredness to the next level. One area of development has already begun to explore the potential for data collection, evaluation, and reflection to support personal growth, and it's known as " | + | |
| - | </WRAP> | + | |
| - | <WRAP column half> | + | |
| - | ===== Personal Informatics | + | |
| - | Sometime around 400 BCE, a passing Greek paused at the Temple of Apollo long enough to inscribe these timeless words into its stone: "Know Thyself." | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Life logging, the now familiar digital recording of life events, actually began in the 1980s. Steve Mann at the University of Toronto strapped laboratory equipment to his body and proceeded to diligently record physiological and video data of all his daily activities. In 1994, he went public and started webcasting video of his everyday life, and, like a good convenience store, he remained open seven days a week, 24 hours a day, inviting the world to drop in. Despite Mann's pioneering work in wearable computing, life logging didn't see mainstream uptake until the turn of the century, when the necessary equipment became more affordable and more acceptable to be seen in. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | The proliferation of mobile digital devices have seen life-logging tools break out of research labs and move stylishly into the jogging hands of the masses. The use of blogs, microblogs, status updates, cameras, GPS, and other low-cost tools for recording and sharing personal events has become increasingly commonplace.[(For one of the earliest examples of life logging, see Buster Benson' | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Several years on, hundreds of dedicated consumer products allow you to record your movements, sleep patterns, eating habits, and other behaviors. Some quantified-self applications are built as extensions to existing technologies leveraging built-in features of standard devices such as accelerometers, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | In addition, standardized formats are allowing the data produced by these devices to be effectively merged. For example, heart rate and blood pressure data from sensor watches can be synchronized with data from gym machines and wireless scales and then uploaded to one of the many websites available (e.g., Movescount) for people to share their athletic lives, struggles, and success stories. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | We have even brought man's best friend into the mix. Modern dog-collar technology allows owners to track Fido's activity level, geographic location, and even happiness throughout the day. If he's at home and you're at work, you can check his activity monitor remotely (opening up whole new opportunities for procrastination). Who knows, maybe in the future we'll be able to sync pet emotional data with our own and finally learn how to be as consistently jolly as dogs are. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | But how do all these data get turned into useful information? | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | " | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | * **Preparation** includes the point at which the decision to track is made along with any associated activities (e.g., deciding on what tool to use). | + | |
| - | * **Collection** is when the user records data points that can occur on various time scales, such as hourly or yearly (e.g., food at each mealtime or books you have read over months). This stage is characterized by the technical challenges associated with gathering large sums of data from the user with minimal effort and intrusion. | + | |
| - | * **Integration** includes the processing strategies that allow a person or the system to build a meaningful synthesis or visualization from the various data sources. | + | |
| - | * **Reflection** occurs when the user reflects on his or her behavior based on the data, and this reflection can happen in real time as in "How many steps have I just walked?" | + | |
| - | * **Action** is the phase most closely related to the challenges of positive computing. It is here where Li, Dey, and Forlizzi ask, "What are the effects of personal informatics on daily life?" and list aspects such as "trust in the system, motivation, better decision making, loss of control, etc.," some of which are not directly related to wellbeing. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | In part II, we look more deeply at the reflective thinking that personal-informatics technologies can support as well as at how reflection can, in the right circumstances, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | The quantified-self movement, (a.k.a. " | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | But the full story is only beginning to take shape. The workshop on personal informatics held at the Association of Computing Machinery' | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Deborah Lupton (2012), a sociologist at the University of Sydney, has explored how digital technologies affect the people who use them, including their experiences of embodiment, selfhood, and social relationships. Lupton describes self-tracking using " | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | On the other hand, Lupton cautions that the design of these technologies requires multiple perspectives? | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Clearly, if we want to see the field mature, we need to share it with those in the social sciences who have academic knowledge in the kinds of human experience we hope to support. For some initial examples of collaboration models for working in multidisciplinary ways as technologists, | + | |
| - | </WRAP> | + | |
| - | <WRAP column half> | + | |
| - | ===== Affective Computing | + | |
| - | It wasn't until the early 1990s that computer scientists begun to take emotions more seriously when a small number of researchers started developing computer systems that could detect human emotions. Rosalind Picard at the MIT Media Lab crystallized an emerging interest in affect in her seminal book Affective Computing (1997). She described three types of affective computing applications: | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | 1. Affect detection, in which the computer uses video, microphones, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | 2. Affect expression, in which software agents (e.g., avatars in virtual-reality environments) are able to express emotions. By doing so, users can establish closer relationships and receive more natural feedback. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | 3. Emotional computers, in which a new kind of computer capable of feeling (mechanically embodying) and expressing emotions (albeit machine versions of them) would be developed. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Most affect-detection systems (Calvo & D' | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | The area has matured into a thriving field with a dedicated journal, a regular conference, and threads within leading HCI journals and conferences.[(The journal is IEEE Transactions on Affective Computing, and the conference is the International Conference on Affective Computing and Intelligent Interaction.)] Several reviews (Calvo & D' | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | There are a number of examples of affective-computing projects that venture beyond improving HCI. In the next section, we describe three cases in which affective-computing technologies (specifically those for detection) have been used to support psychological wellbeing, the first in the area of attentive technologies, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | ==== Affect and Attentive Interfaces | + | |
| - | Concerned by the capacity for new technologies to produce cognitive overload, a group of researchers turned to the development of what they call " | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | ==== Affective Computing for Reflection | + | |
| - | One particularly fruitful point of intersection between affect and reflection is in the area of writing. According to research, it's extremely difficult to be writing one thing and thinking another (though we certainly try). This makes writing a uniquely interesting proposition for studying what someone is thinking at a given moment. It's also much easier to analyze writing in the twenty-first century than it ever has been because most writing and the analysis of it are now done on digital devices connected to the Internet. These same devices enable writers to interact with content and other people in completely new ways as part of the writing process. At the convergence of these features, the door is wide open to whole new data-collection channels and new opportunities for understanding ourselves, how we write, and how we think. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | It is within this context that my students and I (Rafael) have been working on what we call " | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Take, for example, a tool called Glosser, which is a web-based framework for providing automated feedback on writing (Calvo & Ellis, 2010; Villalon, Kearney, Calvo, & Reimann, 2008). Glosser analyzes cognitive aspects of writing, including the development of argument, structure, and topic coverage in order to produce a wide range of feedback. The feedback provided can be on surface or content features, on the writing product (the final document), or on the process itself and is presented as text and visualizations. A quick processing of your essay might reveal at a glance that you haven' | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Although this area of research has been focused on education rather than on wellbeing, a number of instructive similarities can be drawn between the two. For example, subjective areas (such as writing and psychological wellbeing) don't involve simple universal right or wrong answers. Therefore, a key design principle has been to provide reflective rather than directive feedback (" | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | ==== Affect and Technology for Mental Health | + | |
| - | The use of writing in therapy is based on research that suggests that writing about thoughts and feelings associated with an experience is beneficial to some individuals. J. W. Pennebaker (1997, 2004) at the University of Texas, Austin, has performed many of these studies. The precise size of these activities' | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | One of the difficulties is that there are various ways of structuring these writing activities that are helpful to different people. For example, in one study, Laura King and Kathi Miner (2000) found that writing about the positive benefits of an upsetting past experience was beneficial to health. The suggestion is that such structure may enhance self-regulation skills and foster a sense of self-efficacy. The evidence provided by these studies can inform activities and tools for the psychological development of people within clinical scenarios but can also be extended to the design of tools for everyday life. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Another way in which affective computing has been used in psychotherapy is the enhancement of virtual-reality environments. Timothy Bickmore (see his sidebar in chapter 10) and Giuseppe Riva are two researchers spearheading work in this area. Riva (2005) has argued that using virtual-reality exposure therapy for the treatment of anxiety disorders (e.g., fear of heights and speaking in public) is safer, less embarrassing, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Researchers are also exploring how the ever-present mobile phone might also be used for interventions of various kinds for the promotion of wellbeing. For example, one application sends daily motivational text messages based on a number of different psychoeducation campaigns (e.g., stress, random acts of kindness, etc.); another provides mindfulness exercises; and yet another aims to increase sociopolitical participation. Riva and his colleagues have used mobile phones to reduce student stress during exam periods (Preziosa, Grassi, Gaggioli, & Riva, 2009) and commuter stress (Grassi, Gaggioli, & Riva, 2009). More studies that use mobile devices in various ways to reduce stress and improve wellness and wellbeing are regularly published in journals such as Cyberpsychology, | + | |
| - | </WRAP> | + | |
| - | <WRAP column half> | + | |
| - | ===== Behavior Change Technology | + | |
| - | In the last decade, swelling interest in behavioral economics has encouraged growth in the design of technology that persuades, influences, or helps people to change their behavior. It is self-evident that work in the area of behavior change is highly relevant to positive computing since some improvements to wellbeing will involve supporting this change. Behavior change technology (BCT) (also referred to as " | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Researchers focusing on using technology for wellbeing-related behavior change draw on various behavior theories and models including nudge theory, the Transtheoretical Model, the Theory of Planned Behavior, and SDT among others (see Hekler, Klasnja, Froehlich, & Buman, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Some work in this area, especially within the category of persuasive technology, can slide into a rhetoric of designer-control and is happily applied by business to increase profitable behavior. Thus, implications for unethical use follow closely behind any discussion of these methods. As such, researchers are working to outline ethical guidelines (Atkinson, 2006, Spahn, 2011, Davis 2010). For positive computing, part of addressing misuse will emerge from the field' | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | In addition to ethical concerns and issues of user autonomy, we will need to join those researchers in BCT who are challenging the quick-fix thinking that neglects complex, difficult, and long-term change. Martin A. Siegel and Jordan Beck (2014) discuss behavior change technology for quality-of-life improvement advocating for greater acknowledgement that much change is slow and occurs within systems that are complex. They provide the groundwork for an ongoing theory and practice of interaction design for slow changes that they define as " | + | |
| - | </WRAP> | + | |
| - | <WRAP column half> | + | |
| - | ===== Values-Sensitive Design: Acknowledging the Role of Values | + | |
| - | Technology may be able to influence people, but should it? If it's going to be impacting people' | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | One argument for bringing attention to values is that although " | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | For more than two decades, the VSD community has asked what computers ought to do (rather than what they can do) as part of HCI (Friedman, 1996, 1997; Sellen, Rogers, Harper, & Rodden, 2009; Yarosh, Radu, Hunter, & Rosenbaum, 2011). VSD reminds those developing technology that it is impossible to do so without making decisions based on implicit and explicit values and that the values of both designers and users should be accounted for. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | VSD literature has been shaped largely by the moral domain of social knowledge (Friedman, 1997). This moral domain considers views and values on justice, fairness, and human welfare. Value-sensitive designers address conflicts between the individual and society, and they investigate values such as privacy, trust, ownership, and health. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Friedman and colleagues (Friedman, Kahn, & Borning, 2006) suggest a series of guidelines for designing computer systems: | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | | + | |
| - | * Identify those who will use the system (direct stakeholders) and others who will be affected by it (indirect stakeholders). | + | |
| - | * Identify how your system will benefit or harm each stakeholder. | + | |
| - | * Map each benefit and harm onto a list of values. | + | |
| - | * Learn about your key values. (VSD recommends reading the philosophical-ontological literature that may provide a definition and ways of assessing it empirically.) | + | |
| - | * Identify conflicting values?for example, trust versus security, environmental sustainability versus economic development, | + | |
| - | * Incorporate values into the organizational structure so that your company can support such initiatives. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | These authors also list a set of human values that can be taken into account in system design, including ownership and property, privacy, trust, usability, human welfare, and autonomy. Friedman (1996) has also paid significant attention to autonomy, a topic central to some models of wellbeing that we come back to in part II. | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | As one might expect, many of the values held by communities are strongly related to wellbeing; however, a link to psychological wellbeing is not required for values to be held. On the flip side, some aspects of psychological wellbeing are not explicitly included in societal or individual values (both mindfulness and resilience, for example, are causally related to psychological wellbeing but are not necessarily conscious core values in most cultures or within common user groups such as teenagers and company employees). The starting point for VSD researchers is moral philosophy and ethics (Friedman et al., 2006), and the sociocultural approach used in VSD can effectively function independently of psychological drivers. For example, Roberto Verganti' | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | Innovations and inspiration for work in wellness and wellbeing emerge daily from across the many varied technology fields. This chapter was by necessity more of a sample plate than a comprehensive handbook on all that might inform positive-computing work, but to keep informed, you can drop by the website positivecomputing.org to read about or share new examples as they emerge. Now, with a solid grasp of the foundational literature under our belts, in the next chapter we get to the nitty-gritty and look at how all the psychology research on wellbeing might be operationalized into a research and practice framework for future work in positive computing. | + | |
| - | </WRAP> | + | |
| - | <WRAP column half> | + | |
| - | ===== Expert Perspective | + | |
| - | <WRAP box> | + | |
| - | Is a Diet of Data Healthy? | + | |
| - | < | + | |
| - | Digital technology has pervaded all aspects of our lives. Not only does it enable us to access and interact with information and each other, but it can also sense, monitor, inform, and influence human behavior in unprecedented ways. New movements are being established (e.g., the quantified-self and big-data movements) that are rethinking how burgeoning data can be effectively collected, analyzed, and represented to enable the general public, organizations, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | On the one hand, there is much excitement about how best to exploit, represent, and act upon the explosion of data to improve the quality of life. Some people have started to record their activity patterns (e.g., hours slept, cups of coffee consumed) and to use these notes to improve their behaviors, such as going to bed at different times or drinking less coffee at home. On the other hand, there is the danger that having too much pervasive data can result in information overload, an invasion of privacy, and self-obsessiveness. How can we ensure that new forms of data will be harnessed to good effect while ensuring people remain safe and comfortable? | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | The opportunities for sensed, streamed, and tracked data for a modern society are immense. The goal of much big-data system development, | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | A challenge for HCI, therefore, is to consider how best to optimize happiness, creativity, and productivity through tapping into and representing the new streams of data in user-meaningful ways. A new approach to technology-based behavior change is needed that focuses on how data in their various forms can be analyzed, modeled, and represented to optimize human life. Ideally, this approach will draw from a number of relevant disciplines? | + | |
| - | </WRAP> | + | |
| - | + | ||
| - | ~~REFNOTES~~ | + | |
| - | </ | + | |
| - | <WRAP column half> | + | |
| - | ===== References | + | |
| - | Abowd, G. D., & Mynatt, E. D. (2000). Charting past, present, and future research in ubiquitous computing. ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction, | + | |
| - | | + | |
| - | * Calvo, R. A. (2014). Affect-aware reflective writing studios. In R. A. Calvo, S. K. D' | + | |
| - | * Calvo, R. A., & D' | + | |
| - | * Calvo, R. A., D' | + | |
| - | * Calvo, R. A., & Ellis, R. A. (2010). Student conceptions of tutor and automated feedback in professional writing. Journal of Engineering Education, 99(4), 427-438. | + | |
| - | * Davis, J. (2010). Generating directions for persuasive technology design with the inspiration card workshop. In T. Ploug, P. Hasle, & H. Oinas-Kukkonen (Eds.), Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Persuasive technology, PERSUASIVE 2010 (pp. 262-273). Berlin: Springer. | + | |
| - | * Ekman, P. (1992). An argument for basic emotions. Cognition and Emotion, | + | |
| - | * Estrin, D., Govindan, R., Heidemann, J., & Kumar, S. (1999). Next century challenges: Scalable coordination in sensor networks. In Proceedings of the 5th annual ACM/IEEE International Conference on Mobile Computing and Networking (pp. 263-270). New York: ACM. | + | |
| - | * Friedman, B. (1996). Value-sensitive design. Interaction, | + | |
| - | * Friedman, B. (Ed.). (1997). Human values and the design of computer technology (p. 320). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. | + | |
| - | * Friedman, B., & Kahn, P. H. (1992). Human agency and responsible computing: Implications | + | |
| - | * Friedman, B., Kahn, P. H., Jr., & Borning, A. (2006). Value sensitive design and information systems: Human-computer interaction in management information systems. Foundations, | + | |
| - | * Grassi, A., Gaggioli, A., & Riva, G. (2009). The green valley: The use of mobile narratives for reducing stress in commuters. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 12(2), 155-161. | + | |
| - | * Hekler, E. B., Klasnja, P., Froehlich, J. E., & Buman, M. P. (2013) Mind the Theoretical Gap: Interpreting, | + | |
| - | * King, L. A., & Miner, K. N. (2000). Writing about the perceived benefits of traumatic events: Implications for physical health. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26(2), 220-230. | + | |
| - | * Li, I., Dey, A., & Forlizzi, J. (2010). A stage-based model of personal informatics systems. In Proceedings of the 28th International Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 557-566). New York: ACM. | + | |
| - | * Li, I., Dey, A., Forlizzi, J., Hook, K., & Medynskiy, Y. (2011). Personal informatics | + | |
| - | * Lupton, D. (2012). M-health and health promotion: The digital cyborg and surveillance society. Social Theory & Health, 10(3), 229-244. doi:10.1057/sth.2012.6. | + | |
| - | * Pennebaker, J. W. (1997). Opening up: The healing power of expressing emotions (p. 249). New York: Guilford Press. | + | |
| - | * Pennebaker, J. W. (2004). Writing to heal: A guided journal for recovering from trauma and emotional upheaval. Oakland, CA: New Harbinger. | + | |
| - | * Picard, R. W. (1997). Affective computing (p. 275). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. | + | |
| - | * Preziosa, A., Grassi, A., Gaggioli, A., & Riva, G. (2009). Therapeutic applications of the mobile phone. British Journal of Guidance & Counselling, | + | |
| - | * Riva, G. (2005). Virtual reality in psychotherapy (review). Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 8(3), 220-230. | + | |
| - | * Sellen, A., Rogers, Y., Harper, R., & Rodden, T. (2009). Reflecting human values in the digital age. Communications of the ACM, 52(3), 58-66. | + | |
| - | * Siegel, M. A., & Beck, J. (2014). Slow change interaction design. Interactions of the ACM, 21(1), 28-35. | + | |
| - | * Spahn, A. (2011). | + | |
| - | * Verganti, R. (2008). Design, meanings, and radical innovation: A metamodel and a research agenda. Journal of Product Innovation Management, 25, 436-456. | + | |
| - | * Vertegaal, R. (2003). Attentive user interfaces. Communications of the ACM, 46(3), 30-33. | + | |
| - | * Villalon, J., Kearney, P., Calvo, R. A., & Reimann, P. (2008). Glosser: Enhanced feedback for student writing tasks. In Eighth IEEE International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies (pp. 454-458). Santander, ES: IEEE. | + | |
| - | * Weiser, M. (1991). | + | |
| - | * Yarosh, S., Radu, I., Hunter, S., & Rosenbaum, E. (2011). Examining values: An analysis of nine years of IDC research. In 10th International Conference on Interaction Design and Children. IDC 2011 (pp. 136-144). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan. | + | |
| - | * Yick, J., Mukherjee, B., & Ghosal, D. (2008). Wireless sensor network survey. Computer Networks, 52(12), 2292-2330. | + | |
| - | * </WRAP> | + | |
| - | \\ | + | |
| - | \\ | + | |
hyo/private/positive_computing.1466044780.txt.gz · Last modified: 2016/06/16 11:09 by hkimscil