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 +====== 9 Mindfulness ======
 <blockquote>The faculty of voluntarily bringing back a wandering attention, over and over again, is the very root of judgment, character, and will. … An education which should improve this faculty would be the education par excellence. <cite> William James, Psychology (1892)</cite> <blockquote>The faculty of voluntarily bringing back a wandering attention, over and over again, is the very root of judgment, character, and will. … An education which should improve this faculty would be the education par excellence. <cite> William James, Psychology (1892)</cite>
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 The scientific evidence for the positive impact of mindfulness on wellbeing has been accumulating within neuroscience as well as within psychology and psychiatry. In this chapter, we look at some of the literature in each of these fields and present examples of the kinds of traditional and technology-based strategies already in place for developing mindfulness. We also look at some of the latest technologies emerging to support mindfulness practice. But, first, the requisite foray into the workings of the mind or how, from our thoughts to our brainwaves, we change measurably as a result of sustained mindful attention. The scientific evidence for the positive impact of mindfulness on wellbeing has been accumulating within neuroscience as well as within psychology and psychiatry. In this chapter, we look at some of the literature in each of these fields and present examples of the kinds of traditional and technology-based strategies already in place for developing mindfulness. We also look at some of the latest technologies emerging to support mindfulness practice. But, first, the requisite foray into the workings of the mind or how, from our thoughts to our brainwaves, we change measurably as a result of sustained mindful attention.
  
-The Psychology of Mindfulness +===== The Psychology of Mindfulness ===== 
-Awareness and Attention+==== Awareness and Attention ====
  
 Prominent Zen teacher and author Thich Nhat Hanh (2008) describes mindfulness as "keeping one's consciousness alive to the present reality." It is in fact two elements of consciousness -- attention and awareness -- that are at the core of mindfulness practice. Father of Western psychology William James (1892) conceived of mindfulness as the state of being attentive and aware of what is happening at the present moment. Likewise, Kirk Brown and Richard Ryan (2003) discuss mindfulness as a naturally occurring characteristic, with attention and awareness as its two components. Prominent Zen teacher and author Thich Nhat Hanh (2008) describes mindfulness as "keeping one's consciousness alive to the present reality." It is in fact two elements of consciousness -- attention and awareness -- that are at the core of mindfulness practice. Father of Western psychology William James (1892) conceived of mindfulness as the state of being attentive and aware of what is happening at the present moment. Likewise, Kirk Brown and Richard Ryan (2003) discuss mindfulness as a naturally occurring characteristic, with attention and awareness as its two components.
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 Awareness is the component that continuously monitors the inner and outer world. It is what feeds that which Daniel Kahneman (2013) has called "system 1," the automatic system. Attention refers to the focused attention we place on part of the moment-to-moment experience, which may be our thoughts, feelings, behaviors, or the surrounding environment. So depending on the moment itself, a focus of our awareness might be a flower, a companion, or a current feeling of anxiety. Attention provides a heightened sensitivity to a subset of what we sense. An essential element of this attention in the context of mindfulness is nonjudgment. Awareness is the component that continuously monitors the inner and outer world. It is what feeds that which Daniel Kahneman (2013) has called "system 1," the automatic system. Attention refers to the focused attention we place on part of the moment-to-moment experience, which may be our thoughts, feelings, behaviors, or the surrounding environment. So depending on the moment itself, a focus of our awareness might be a flower, a companion, or a current feeling of anxiety. Attention provides a heightened sensitivity to a subset of what we sense. An essential element of this attention in the context of mindfulness is nonjudgment.
  
-Mindfulness as Nonjudgmental Attention+==== Mindfulness as Nonjudgmental Attention ====
  
 Mindfulness is distinct from the retrospective reflective processes discussed in the previous chapter in at least two ways. First, rather than being a mental account or an analysis of experience, mindfulness is a nonreflective and nonjudgmental observation of it. Mindfulness practice specifically avoids evaluation, opinion construction, or analytical cognitions. It is attention and awareness stripped bare of the judgments we so often automatically impose upon all that we perceive. Kabat-Zinn (2003) makes this clear and offers the following as an operational definition of mindfulness accordingly: "the awareness that emerges through paying attention on purpose, in the present moment, and nonjudgmentally to the unfolding of experience moment by moment." Mindfulness is distinct from the retrospective reflective processes discussed in the previous chapter in at least two ways. First, rather than being a mental account or an analysis of experience, mindfulness is a nonreflective and nonjudgmental observation of it. Mindfulness practice specifically avoids evaluation, opinion construction, or analytical cognitions. It is attention and awareness stripped bare of the judgments we so often automatically impose upon all that we perceive. Kabat-Zinn (2003) makes this clear and offers the following as an operational definition of mindfulness accordingly: "the awareness that emerges through paying attention on purpose, in the present moment, and nonjudgmentally to the unfolding of experience moment by moment."
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 This relinquishing of judgment is also a key difference between mindfulness and CBT. CBT encourages the labeling of negative thoughts and feelings, for example, as "unhelpful" or "irrational" and encourages challenging and changing those thoughts. In contrast, mindfulness practice encourages the simple observation and acceptance of them and discourages both rumination and striving for any particular outcome (Hamilton, Kitzman, & Guyotte, 2006). One goal of this nonjudgmental observation is to gain the insight that all thoughts and feelings, regardless of their content, are empty and transient constructions. Nancy Hamilton, Heather Kitzman, and Stephanie Guyotte (2006) note that although these two approaches (CBT labeling versus mindfulness nonlabeling) are diametrically opposite in practice, they can lead to the same outcomes, and the two practices are frequently used in complement, as in MBCT. This relinquishing of judgment is also a key difference between mindfulness and CBT. CBT encourages the labeling of negative thoughts and feelings, for example, as "unhelpful" or "irrational" and encourages challenging and changing those thoughts. In contrast, mindfulness practice encourages the simple observation and acceptance of them and discourages both rumination and striving for any particular outcome (Hamilton, Kitzman, & Guyotte, 2006). One goal of this nonjudgmental observation is to gain the insight that all thoughts and feelings, regardless of their content, are empty and transient constructions. Nancy Hamilton, Heather Kitzman, and Stephanie Guyotte (2006) note that although these two approaches (CBT labeling versus mindfulness nonlabeling) are diametrically opposite in practice, they can lead to the same outcomes, and the two practices are frequently used in complement, as in MBCT.
  
-Mindfulness: State or Trait?+==== Mindfulness: State or Trait? ====
  
 Brown and Ryan argue that some people may have a disposition (i.e., trait) toward being more mindful, and so they have explored mindfulness as a naturally occurring attribute. Their research has shown that mindfulness as a trait has a positive effect on self-regulated activity and on wellbeing (Brown & Ryan, 2003; Brown, Ryan, & Creswell, 2007). However, they have also studied mindfulness as a state that can occur as a result of training, and their research has found that, independent of disposition, momentary experiences of mindfulness also have a salutary effect on wellbeing. Brown and Ryan argue that some people may have a disposition (i.e., trait) toward being more mindful, and so they have explored mindfulness as a naturally occurring attribute. Their research has shown that mindfulness as a trait has a positive effect on self-regulated activity and on wellbeing (Brown & Ryan, 2003; Brown, Ryan, & Creswell, 2007). However, they have also studied mindfulness as a state that can occur as a result of training, and their research has found that, independent of disposition, momentary experiences of mindfulness also have a salutary effect on wellbeing.
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 Research on mindfulness states, the success of programs such as MBSR, and the ancient history of Buddhist practice give ample evidence that mindfulness can be developed with practice, and therefore we can infer that there is potential for technology to be involved in this practice, be it as direct guidance or as peripheral support. But before we get to that, it is worth peeking into the world of the neuroscientist in order to discover how mindfulness physically changes our brain structures and their activity. Research on mindfulness states, the success of programs such as MBSR, and the ancient history of Buddhist practice give ample evidence that mindfulness can be developed with practice, and therefore we can infer that there is potential for technology to be involved in this practice, be it as direct guidance or as peripheral support. But before we get to that, it is worth peeking into the world of the neuroscientist in order to discover how mindfulness physically changes our brain structures and their activity.
  
-The Neuroscience of Mindfulness+===== The Neuroscience of Mindfulness ===== 
 Sitting in the confines of his plastic cave, the monk enters a state of deep, spacious awareness. Ready to detect any change in his brainwaves are the 24 electrodes pasted to his conveniently shaven head, and the fMRI machine -- the cave within which he sits -- is sending data on cerebral blood flow to the group of eager scientists behind the glass. Ancient in its origins, meditation is by far the oldest systematic practice for developing mindfulness that exists. Newfangled as mindfulness practice may sound to some, humans were training in it long before they were writing on paper. The practice has survived 2,000 years of human history, and modern-day Buddhist monks continue to engage in and teach these same practices around the globe. Happily, these same monks are also amenable to satisfying the empirical curiosity of neuroscientists, which is why we find them in unlikely places, such as fMRI machines in Madison, Wisconsin. Sitting in the confines of his plastic cave, the monk enters a state of deep, spacious awareness. Ready to detect any change in his brainwaves are the 24 electrodes pasted to his conveniently shaven head, and the fMRI machine -- the cave within which he sits -- is sending data on cerebral blood flow to the group of eager scientists behind the glass. Ancient in its origins, meditation is by far the oldest systematic practice for developing mindfulness that exists. Newfangled as mindfulness practice may sound to some, humans were training in it long before they were writing on paper. The practice has survived 2,000 years of human history, and modern-day Buddhist monks continue to engage in and teach these same practices around the globe. Happily, these same monks are also amenable to satisfying the empirical curiosity of neuroscientists, which is why we find them in unlikely places, such as fMRI machines in Madison, Wisconsin.
  
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 One surprising finding, with implications for those seeking to measure levels of mindfulness physiologically, is that although it seems logical to assume meditation practice will develop interoceptive awareness, which is often measured by a participant's ability to detect his own heartbeat, Sahib Khalsa and his colleagues (2008) have shown that practicing attention to internal body sensations does not actually lead to a better heart beat detection. So how does one go about measuring mindfulness? Well, usually, with a questionnaire … One surprising finding, with implications for those seeking to measure levels of mindfulness physiologically, is that although it seems logical to assume meditation practice will develop interoceptive awareness, which is often measured by a participant's ability to detect his own heartbeat, Sahib Khalsa and his colleagues (2008) have shown that practicing attention to internal body sensations does not actually lead to a better heart beat detection. So how does one go about measuring mindfulness? Well, usually, with a questionnaire …
  
-Measuring Mindfulness+===== Measuring Mindfulness =====
 We can now use EEG and even brain imaging to detect and study mindfulness states, but the simplest, most widely used and thoroughly validated ways to measure mindfulness as both a state and trait are self-report instruments and established mindfulness scales developed by various research groups, each with a slightly different focus. We can now use EEG and even brain imaging to detect and study mindfulness states, but the simplest, most widely used and thoroughly validated ways to measure mindfulness as both a state and trait are self-report instruments and established mindfulness scales developed by various research groups, each with a slightly different focus.
  
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 Fortunately, there is good correlation among scales as well as between scale measures and related psychological measures (and, to a less studied degree, there is correlation between the results of these scales and neurological measures). Nevertheless, researchers agree that available measures are never perfect, and further development to address weaknesses and devise complimentary methods of measurement is ongoing. Fortunately, there is good correlation among scales as well as between scale measures and related psychological measures (and, to a less studied degree, there is correlation between the results of these scales and neurological measures). Nevertheless, researchers agree that available measures are never perfect, and further development to address weaknesses and devise complimentary methods of measurement is ongoing.
  
-Measuring the Impact of Mindfulness on Wellbeing+==== Measuring the Impact of Mindfulness on Wellbeing ====
  
 The end goal for any effort in cultivating mindfulness is to foster wellbeing (whether by reducing the experience of pain, preventing depression, treating anxiety, or something else.) In order to measure the link between mindfulness and wellbeing, Brown & Ryan (2003) have used a combination of scales across several studies, including the CES-D Scale and the Beck Depression Inventory (for depression); the Positive and Negative Affect Scale and a scale of affective tone (for SWB); two scales to measure eudaimonic wellbeing; and two to measure physical wellness. The end goal for any effort in cultivating mindfulness is to foster wellbeing (whether by reducing the experience of pain, preventing depression, treating anxiety, or something else.) In order to measure the link between mindfulness and wellbeing, Brown & Ryan (2003) have used a combination of scales across several studies, including the CES-D Scale and the Beck Depression Inventory (for depression); the Positive and Negative Affect Scale and a scale of affective tone (for SWB); two scales to measure eudaimonic wellbeing; and two to measure physical wellness.
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   - Mind-wandering occurred about half the time. Their findings suggest that on average 46.5 percent of the time we are thinking about something other than what we're doing. This happens at least 30 percent of the time for specific activities (with the exception of love making, for which we mind wander -- or admit to it -- only about 10 percent of the time). Interestingly, whether we mind wander is not, as one might expect, related to the nature of the activity we are engaged in.   - Mind-wandering occurred about half the time. Their findings suggest that on average 46.5 percent of the time we are thinking about something other than what we're doing. This happens at least 30 percent of the time for specific activities (with the exception of love making, for which we mind wander -- or admit to it -- only about 10 percent of the time). Interestingly, whether we mind wander is not, as one might expect, related to the nature of the activity we are engaged in.
- 
   - People were less happy when their minds wandered, regardless of what they were doing at that time. Minds wandered to positive things 42.5 percent of the time, to negative things 26.5 percent of the time, and to neutral things 31 percent of the time. And here's the clincher: people were not happier when their minds wandered to positive thoughts than when they were simply being mindful of the task at hand (whatever it may be). In other words, fantasizing about a tropical island while sitting in dull traffic will not make you happier than mindfully attending to the traffic.   - People were less happy when their minds wandered, regardless of what they were doing at that time. Minds wandered to positive things 42.5 percent of the time, to negative things 26.5 percent of the time, and to neutral things 31 percent of the time. And here's the clincher: people were not happier when their minds wandered to positive thoughts than when they were simply being mindful of the task at hand (whatever it may be). In other words, fantasizing about a tropical island while sitting in dull traffic will not make you happier than mindfully attending to the traffic.
- 
   - What people were thinking was more important to predicting how they felt than what they were doing. The nature of participant activity explained only 4.6 percent of the variance in happiness, while mind wandering explained 10.8 percent.   - What people were thinking was more important to predicting how they felt than what they were doing. The nature of participant activity explained only 4.6 percent of the variance in happiness, while mind wandering explained 10.8 percent.
- 
   - Most significantly, the study gave evidence that mind wandering was generally a cause rather than simply a consequence of unhappiness.   - Most significantly, the study gave evidence that mind wandering was generally a cause rather than simply a consequence of unhappiness.
  
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 The abundance of research evidence for the wellbeing benefits of mindfulness gives us plenty of reason to support it in the context of positive computing. However, how do we approach supporting users with a factor so subjective and internally experienced? Eight-week programs are unlikely to be the best model when users seldom engage with technology in the way they do with intensive medical interventions. Nevertheless, even longer programs are composed of smaller parts, and interventions in psychology remain an important place to look for guidance. The abundance of research evidence for the wellbeing benefits of mindfulness gives us plenty of reason to support it in the context of positive computing. However, how do we approach supporting users with a factor so subjective and internally experienced? Eight-week programs are unlikely to be the best model when users seldom engage with technology in the way they do with intensive medical interventions. Nevertheless, even longer programs are composed of smaller parts, and interventions in psychology remain an important place to look for guidance.
  
-Strategies and Interventions for Fostering Mindfulness +===== Strategies and Interventions for Fostering Mindfulness ===== 
-Mindfulness Training and Meditation+==== Mindfulness Training and Meditation ====
  
 Jon Kabat-Zinn's (1990) eight-week intensive MBSR program is based on a combination of meditation, Yoga practices, and inquiry exercises developed in weekly meetings. The meditation practice consists of turning attention, without judgment, to thoughts, feelings, and body sensations. A meta-analysis of 20 independent evaluations of MBSR programs (Grossman et al., 2004) found that all the interventions had similarly large effect sizes of 0.5 (P < 0.0001),3 a track record of success that has placed MBSR programs in more than 200 institutions around the world. Jon Kabat-Zinn's (1990) eight-week intensive MBSR program is based on a combination of meditation, Yoga practices, and inquiry exercises developed in weekly meetings. The meditation practice consists of turning attention, without judgment, to thoughts, feelings, and body sensations. A meta-analysis of 20 independent evaluations of MBSR programs (Grossman et al., 2004) found that all the interventions had similarly large effect sizes of 0.5 (P < 0.0001),3 a track record of success that has placed MBSR programs in more than 200 institutions around the world.
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 Although most modern technology trains us in splitting attention, there are a number of initiatives, from the experimental to the commercial, that have already been developed specifically to support mindfulness, either by providing guidance for meditation or by training the wandering mind to return to the present through the use of sound or visual stimuli (we look at those technologies in the later section "Digital Technologies for Mindfulness"). Although most modern technology trains us in splitting attention, there are a number of initiatives, from the experimental to the commercial, that have already been developed specifically to support mindfulness, either by providing guidance for meditation or by training the wandering mind to return to the present through the use of sound or visual stimuli (we look at those technologies in the later section "Digital Technologies for Mindfulness").
  
-Strategies in Education+==== Strategies in Education ====
  
 Despite the fact that William James had already espoused the value of mindfulness training for education back in the nineteenth century, we are only now beginning to see this training find its way into the curriculum. Politicians, academic administrators, and educators are gradually coming to the conclusion that promoting mindfulness programs in schools is worth serious attention. Despite the fact that William James had already espoused the value of mindfulness training for education back in the nineteenth century, we are only now beginning to see this training find its way into the curriculum. Politicians, academic administrators, and educators are gradually coming to the conclusion that promoting mindfulness programs in schools is worth serious attention.
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 Integrating mindfulness training programs or other mindfulness interventions into people's lives through schooling and workplace training requires the commitment of policymakers and managers who recognize the value of such programs. Seeing that scientists have shown the causal relationship between mindfulness and wellbeing, it seems rational to expect an increasing number of initiatives to emerge over the next decade. Integrating mindfulness training programs or other mindfulness interventions into people's lives through schooling and workplace training requires the commitment of policymakers and managers who recognize the value of such programs. Seeing that scientists have shown the causal relationship between mindfulness and wellbeing, it seems rational to expect an increasing number of initiatives to emerge over the next decade.
  
-Biofeedback Interventions+==== Biofeedback Interventions ====
  
 As mentioned earlier, there are measurable correlations between mindfulness states and various physiological signals (Chiesa & Serretti, 2010; Lutz et al., 2006), and although these signals are useful for research, some researchers have gone further to ask how they might be used as feedback for mindfulness training. Biofeedback systems record physiological signals and feed them back to the user as sound or visual stimuli in real time. The signals may include a variety of inputs from EEG and electrocardiogram to heart rate or breathing patterns. By receiving this synced real-time feedback, a participant can learn to change a detected physiological factor, for example, via operant conditioning (with a subtle reward system). As mentioned earlier, there are measurable correlations between mindfulness states and various physiological signals (Chiesa & Serretti, 2010; Lutz et al., 2006), and although these signals are useful for research, some researchers have gone further to ask how they might be used as feedback for mindfulness training. Biofeedback systems record physiological signals and feed them back to the user as sound or visual stimuli in real time. The signals may include a variety of inputs from EEG and electrocardiogram to heart rate or breathing patterns. By receiving this synced real-time feedback, a participant can learn to change a detected physiological factor, for example, via operant conditioning (with a subtle reward system).
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 Although the price, size, and accessibility of biofeedback sensors and systems have been plummeting over the past few years, most experimental systems remain fairly intrusive or expensive or both. An alternative approach comprises a challenge to positive computing: How can mindfulness states and training be effectively supported by common digital technologies? Although the price, size, and accessibility of biofeedback sensors and systems have been plummeting over the past few years, most experimental systems remain fairly intrusive or expensive or both. An alternative approach comprises a challenge to positive computing: How can mindfulness states and training be effectively supported by common digital technologies?
  
-Digital Technology for Mindfulness+===== Digital Technology for Mindfulness =====
 From melting into an embodied symphonic experience to following the reassuring guidance of a soft voice recording or even sharing your efforts with friends, the examples of technology-mediated support for mindfulness, though in their early stages, are already surprisingly diverse. Available technologies designed around mindfulness practices can currently be placed into three categories: (1) those focused on guided sessions (lessons, exercises, or meditation sessions); (2) those that include social networking and sharing features; and (3) those focused on embodied experiences, often based on biofeedback approaches. Numerous applications have been designed to promote mindfulness, but we have selected just a few to describe by way of example. From melting into an embodied symphonic experience to following the reassuring guidance of a soft voice recording or even sharing your efforts with friends, the examples of technology-mediated support for mindfulness, though in their early stages, are already surprisingly diverse. Available technologies designed around mindfulness practices can currently be placed into three categories: (1) those focused on guided sessions (lessons, exercises, or meditation sessions); (2) those that include social networking and sharing features; and (3) those focused on embodied experiences, often based on biofeedback approaches. Numerous applications have been designed to promote mindfulness, but we have selected just a few to describe by way of example.
  
-Guided Sessions+==== Guided Sessions ==== 
  
 Smiling Mind is a collection of mindfulness-training activities delivered over the Internet and via mobile app. Like other audio-instruction-based courses, it provides a series of guided meditation recordings. It differentiates itself, however, by providing these recordings in the context of tailored training curricula. Smiling Mind provides content targeted to various contexts (e.g., a curriculum program aimed at school-age children and a corporate training program for adults). For each of the programs, the focus has been on developing a high-quality curriculum and set of materials. Smiling Mind is a collection of mindfulness-training activities delivered over the Internet and via mobile app. Like other audio-instruction-based courses, it provides a series of guided meditation recordings. It differentiates itself, however, by providing these recordings in the context of tailored training curricula. Smiling Mind provides content targeted to various contexts (e.g., a curriculum program aimed at school-age children and a corporate training program for adults). For each of the programs, the focus has been on developing a high-quality curriculum and set of materials.
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 Other examples of guided support have specifically targeted stress in the workplace. Mark Williams and his group at the University of Oxford (Krusche, Cyhlarova, King, & Williams, 2012) evaluated a set of modules from the MBSR and MBCT programs delivered over six weeks. The Perceived Stress Scale (Cohen, Kamarck, & Mermelstein, 1983) was used to measure the program's impact, and the study concluded that online mindfulness training can significantly decrease perceived stress (with changes still apparent at a one-month follow-up). Other examples of guided support have specifically targeted stress in the workplace. Mark Williams and his group at the University of Oxford (Krusche, Cyhlarova, King, & Williams, 2012) evaluated a set of modules from the MBSR and MBCT programs delivered over six weeks. The Perceived Stress Scale (Cohen, Kamarck, & Mermelstein, 1983) was used to measure the program's impact, and the study concluded that online mindfulness training can significantly decrease perceived stress (with changes still apparent at a one-month follow-up).
  
-Social Features in Mindfulness Training+==== Social Features in Mindfulness Training ==== 
  
 Projects such as Mindfulnets5 distinguish themselves by adding social networking features that allow users to share their ongoing experience with others. The user fills out two questionnaires, the Perceived Stress Scale and the Five Facets Mindfulness Questionnaire. Although the responses from the questionnaires are not used to personalize the interaction (which might be an interesting feature in future), they are used to measure the impact of the interventions, which is useful both for the user (as evidence of improvement) and for the organization (as evidence of efficacy). Projects such as Mindfulnets5 distinguish themselves by adding social networking features that allow users to share their ongoing experience with others. The user fills out two questionnaires, the Perceived Stress Scale and the Five Facets Mindfulness Questionnaire. Although the responses from the questionnaires are not used to personalize the interaction (which might be an interesting feature in future), they are used to measure the impact of the interventions, which is useful both for the user (as evidence of improvement) and for the organization (as evidence of efficacy).
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 More research is currently needed before we can understand if social interaction and sharing are beneficial to mindfulness practice and interventions, which are by nature personal endeavors. If so, we will also need to know what kinds of social features are helpful (and which are harmful), for whom, and in what contexts, and what design features have an impact. More research is currently needed before we can understand if social interaction and sharing are beneficial to mindfulness practice and interventions, which are by nature personal endeavors. If so, we will also need to know what kinds of social features are helpful (and which are harmful), for whom, and in what contexts, and what design features have an impact.
  
-Embodied Experience+==== Embodied Experience ==== 
  
 Very few have explored embodied experiences for supporting mindfulness, but notable exceptions do exist. At a basic level, the mindfulness breathing exercises at Mindfulnets include very simple embodiment features in that the user clicks the mouse with each breath while a preset timer runs. Very few have explored embodied experiences for supporting mindfulness, but notable exceptions do exist. At a basic level, the mindfulness breathing exercises at Mindfulnets include very simple embodiment features in that the user clicks the mouse with each breath while a preset timer runs.
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 From light-up floors to shaking forks, we're clearly only seeing the very tip of the iceberg when it comes to how embodiment might be employed to support mindful attention during meditation and daily activity. It will be a while yet before we can come to know what is genuinely effective and what is obstructive or merely superfluous to such endeavors, and we can expect there to be differences across contexts, levels of experience, and possibly cultures. At any rate, embodiment research will be an interesting space to watch (and sample) as future developments arise. From light-up floors to shaking forks, we're clearly only seeing the very tip of the iceberg when it comes to how embodiment might be employed to support mindful attention during meditation and daily activity. It will be a while yet before we can come to know what is genuinely effective and what is obstructive or merely superfluous to such endeavors, and we can expect there to be differences across contexts, levels of experience, and possibly cultures. At any rate, embodiment research will be an interesting space to watch (and sample) as future developments arise.
  
-Games for Mindfulness?+==== Games for Mindfulness? ==== 
  
 Although there are websites eager to suggest that common videogames train us in mindfulness, they are confusing mindfulness with concentration. We can concentrate heavily on a videogame for hours, losing our awareness of what is happening around us. We do this in the context of striving to achieve a specific goal. Concentrated striving is not mindfulness. Mindfulness is frequently described as a method of "nonstriving" (see Williams & Kabat-Zinn, 2013) that facilitates open acceptance and awareness, so goal setting seems decidedly antithetical in this context. This indeed poses challenges for the use of games for mindfulness. Can you have a game without an object or goal? Would it still be a game by definition? For this reason, we may find that games are better suited to training certain skills that are helpful to mindfulness (e.g. returning to the breath) than to inducing a state of mindfulness itself. In fact, this is precisely the route being taken by the earliest experiments in mindfulness games. Although there are websites eager to suggest that common videogames train us in mindfulness, they are confusing mindfulness with concentration. We can concentrate heavily on a videogame for hours, losing our awareness of what is happening around us. We do this in the context of striving to achieve a specific goal. Concentrated striving is not mindfulness. Mindfulness is frequently described as a method of "nonstriving" (see Williams & Kabat-Zinn, 2013) that facilitates open acceptance and awareness, so goal setting seems decidedly antithetical in this context. This indeed poses challenges for the use of games for mindfulness. Can you have a game without an object or goal? Would it still be a game by definition? For this reason, we may find that games are better suited to training certain skills that are helpful to mindfulness (e.g. returning to the breath) than to inducing a state of mindfulness itself. In fact, this is precisely the route being taken by the earliest experiments in mindfulness games.
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 Games+Learning+Society (GLS), a group of researchers and developers based in Madison, Wisconsin, is working on games specifically designed to provide practice in aspects of mindfulness and other wellbeing-related skills. One of these games, called Tenacity, requires the player to tap an iPad once for each breath and twice for each fifth breath through increasing levels of distracting difficulty. Researchers at GLS, who include neuroscientists such as Richard Davidson, study the psychological effects of videogames using a combination of behavioral, structural, and fMRI-based measures -- an approach that is sure to reveal important insights for positive computing designers. Games+Learning+Society (GLS), a group of researchers and developers based in Madison, Wisconsin, is working on games specifically designed to provide practice in aspects of mindfulness and other wellbeing-related skills. One of these games, called Tenacity, requires the player to tap an iPad once for each breath and twice for each fifth breath through increasing levels of distracting difficulty. Researchers at GLS, who include neuroscientists such as Richard Davidson, study the psychological effects of videogames using a combination of behavioral, structural, and fMRI-based measures -- an approach that is sure to reveal important insights for positive computing designers.
  
-Design Implications +===== Design Implications ===== 
-Distraction versus Guidance+ 
 +==== Distraction versus Guidance ====
  
 In Japanese monasteries, the head monk voluntarily provides a generous service to those in his spiritual care -- he walks around the hall quietly until he spots someone whose mind has evidently wandered, at which point he raps the willing student on the shoulder with a stick. Veterans swear by the effectiveness of this practice. Still, some prefer the comparatively gentle awakening provided by the meditation bell or the early-morning gong. Each of these methods, from the stick to the gong, is a form of short and sweet wake-up call designed to bring a wandering mind back to the present moment, and there doesn't seem to be any reason that technology couldn't be employed to provide a similar service. Yet how do we separate the song of the bell from the nag of the beep? A beep is an aggravation if it goes off at the wrong time, and a rap with a stick unsolicited could lead to bursts of profanity. At least part of the answer to striking this balance seems to lie in two things: autonomy (as usual) and that design stalwart, minimalism. In Japanese monasteries, the head monk voluntarily provides a generous service to those in his spiritual care -- he walks around the hall quietly until he spots someone whose mind has evidently wandered, at which point he raps the willing student on the shoulder with a stick. Veterans swear by the effectiveness of this practice. Still, some prefer the comparatively gentle awakening provided by the meditation bell or the early-morning gong. Each of these methods, from the stick to the gong, is a form of short and sweet wake-up call designed to bring a wandering mind back to the present moment, and there doesn't seem to be any reason that technology couldn't be employed to provide a similar service. Yet how do we separate the song of the bell from the nag of the beep? A beep is an aggravation if it goes off at the wrong time, and a rap with a stick unsolicited could lead to bursts of profanity. At least part of the answer to striking this balance seems to lie in two things: autonomy (as usual) and that design stalwart, minimalism.
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 By minimalism we also mean subtlety. You might say the Zen master's stick is hardly subtle, but then it is simple, direct, infrequently applied, and reserved for willing experts. In general, traditional methods such as gongs and bells are applied in a way that is infrequent, gradually increases in volume, and is prefaced and followed by silence. The intention is not to devastatingly startle or distract, but to gently awaken from mind-wandering reverie. By minimalism we also mean subtlety. You might say the Zen master's stick is hardly subtle, but then it is simple, direct, infrequently applied, and reserved for willing experts. In general, traditional methods such as gongs and bells are applied in a way that is infrequent, gradually increases in volume, and is prefaced and followed by silence. The intention is not to devastatingly startle or distract, but to gently awaken from mind-wandering reverie.
  
-Using Aural and Haptic Feedback+==== Using Aural and Haptic Feedback ==== 
  
 The bell and stick go back centuries as effective tools for supporting mindfulness and meditation. In modern terms, they might be described as tools for aural and haptic feedback. Another form of haptic feedback is seen in a common meditation posture that requires holding the hands in the lap with thumbs almost touching (the "Zen mudra") (Chodron, 2007). This clever feedback mechanism is designed to let you know you're dozing off (as your thumbs collapse) or overdoing it (as they push together). The bell and stick go back centuries as effective tools for supporting mindfulness and meditation. In modern terms, they might be described as tools for aural and haptic feedback. Another form of haptic feedback is seen in a common meditation posture that requires holding the hands in the lap with thumbs almost touching (the "Zen mudra") (Chodron, 2007). This clever feedback mechanism is designed to let you know you're dozing off (as your thumbs collapse) or overdoing it (as they push together).
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 Some of the modern examples mentioned previously, such as Sonic Cradle, have successfully employed aural feedback to represent physiological signals. In another example, the Tibetan "singing bowl" inspired an experimental variation: the Electronic Singing Bowl produced by a team at Phillips (Plasier et al., 2011). The bowl produced synthesized gong sounds and monaural beats (sound-frequency combinations that have been shown to trigger states of relaxation). The device was not designed to support mindfulness, but rather to aid relaxation, for which it was shown to be helpful. Even here, however, a design principle of minimalism is advisable as participant feedback from such studies shows that users have an aversion to sounds that are unusual, overly loud, or overly present -- probably because meditation is something generally done in silence. Some of the modern examples mentioned previously, such as Sonic Cradle, have successfully employed aural feedback to represent physiological signals. In another example, the Tibetan "singing bowl" inspired an experimental variation: the Electronic Singing Bowl produced by a team at Phillips (Plasier et al., 2011). The bowl produced synthesized gong sounds and monaural beats (sound-frequency combinations that have been shown to trigger states of relaxation). The device was not designed to support mindfulness, but rather to aid relaxation, for which it was shown to be helpful. Even here, however, a design principle of minimalism is advisable as participant feedback from such studies shows that users have an aversion to sounds that are unusual, overly loud, or overly present -- probably because meditation is something generally done in silence.
  
-Supporting Nonjudgment+==== Supporting Nonjudgment ==== 
  
 We have already alluded to the potential pitfalls of applying certain motivational features such as tracking and goal-setting to meditative practice and mindfulness training, although they are highly effective in other contexts. We also highlighted the "nonstriving" aspect of mindfulness that makes goal setting problematic. Tracking and goal setting may also encourage comparison to others ("I will practice mindfulness every day this month" or "I can't believe he meditates more than me"). We have already alluded to the potential pitfalls of applying certain motivational features such as tracking and goal-setting to meditative practice and mindfulness training, although they are highly effective in other contexts. We also highlighted the "nonstriving" aspect of mindfulness that makes goal setting problematic. Tracking and goal setting may also encourage comparison to others ("I will practice mindfulness every day this month" or "I can't believe he meditates more than me").
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 Support for self-compassion may also prove helpful in balancing out our tendency to strive and judge in this context. Kabat-Zinn (2003) suggests the answer to reconciling nonstriving with the reality of valid intentions is rooted in teacher authenticity, which in our case, translates to designer authenticity. Support for self-compassion may also prove helpful in balancing out our tendency to strive and judge in this context. Kabat-Zinn (2003) suggests the answer to reconciling nonstriving with the reality of valid intentions is rooted in teacher authenticity, which in our case, translates to designer authenticity.
  
-Practicing What You Teach (or Design For)+==== Practicing What You Teach (or Design For) ==== 
  
 Although there do not seem to be any downsides to mindfulness (for example, there are no reported negative side effects), Kabat-Zinn has drawn attention to the potential pitfalls that scientists (and, we infer, technologists) are at risk of encountering as interest in mindfulness gains momentum within clinical practice and beyond. In a thorough commentary, Kabat-Zinn (2003) cautions: Although there do not seem to be any downsides to mindfulness (for example, there are no reported negative side effects), Kabat-Zinn has drawn attention to the potential pitfalls that scientists (and, we infer, technologists) are at risk of encountering as interest in mindfulness gains momentum within clinical practice and beyond. In a thorough commentary, Kabat-Zinn (2003) cautions:
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 In the case of technology, we can just as easily get carried away by enthusiasm, by our desire to fit a mindfulness agenda into a particular technology or vice versa, or by a temptation to compromise critical principles of mindfulness for the sake of quantifiable goals or aesthetic values. The lesson is simple: when it comes to mindfulness, don't just talk about it, don't just design for it, do it, and do it before you design. In the case of technology, we can just as easily get carried away by enthusiasm, by our desire to fit a mindfulness agenda into a particular technology or vice versa, or by a temptation to compromise critical principles of mindfulness for the sake of quantifiable goals or aesthetic values. The lesson is simple: when it comes to mindfulness, don't just talk about it, don't just design for it, do it, and do it before you design.
  
-Expert Perspectives -- Technology for Mindfulness 
-Mindfulness Online 
- 
-Figure 9.1 
-Adele Krusche and J. Mark G. Willaims, Oxford Mindfulness Centre, University of Oxford 
- 
-Computing is not about computers any more. It is about living. 
- 
-?Nicholas Negroponte, Being Digital 
- 
-At the Oxford Mindfulness Centre, we teach people the skills to be able to let go of unwanted thoughts, to sit still and to pay attention to what is going on right here and now. Within Oxford University's Department of Psychiatry, we work with partners around the world to prevent depression and enhance human potential through the therapeutic use of mindfulness. The benefits of mindfulness in preventing serious depression and emotional distress have been demonstrated by clinical trials, and work continues to explore the implications of this relationship and to extend the approach to other disorders, using brain-imaging techniques together with experimental cognitive science to learn how mindfulness has its effects and which practices are best for whom. 
  
-The society we live in and mindfulness therapy seem to be poles apart. A simple concept such as staying still and noticing seems, to many, very alien now, and perhaps that means we need to remember it. Mindfulness courses delivered in person have been shown to be effective for many people experiencing a variety of problems.+==== Notes ====
  
-The problem comes when we have classes on mindfulness running a few miles from home, starting perhaps while we are at work or picking the kids up from school; maybe disability or cost gets in the way. This is where online mindfulness comes in. It offers the opportunity for people to learn the skills in their own homes, in their own comfortable chair, without the need to rush or arrange childcare. These skills can then be used in the very surroundings they might need most.+1. The eight steps are: Right View, Right Intentions, Right Speech, Right Actions, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, and Right Concentration. 
 +2. The research guide can be found at mindfulexperience.org. 
 +3. This means that the relationship between the intervention (doing MBSR) and wellbeing is considered high. 
 +4. For this promotion, see the website mindfuleducation.org. 
 +5. See the website mindfulnets.co. 
 +6. Although the full experience requires the cradle and a sound-proof room, you can get a taste of it at jayvidyarthi.com.
  
-That isn't to say that this online mindfulness therapy is for everyone. We're only just starting to explore its effectiveness. Our preliminary research suggests that Internet-based mindfulness training has the potential to reduce stress, anxiety, and depression in people who have chosen to take a course. We don't yet know much about the people taking the course, but are looking forward to finding out exactly who and who does not benefit from it. If people are getting results from this course equivalent to online CBT or some face-to-face courses, it seems essential to continue the research and to develop online therapies to help the people who choose to take them. The word is starting to spread that these Internet interventions exist, that helpful therapies are available now, and that they might just make you feel better without your having to leave your living room. Being able to steal some time back in the light of your monitor might take some of the frantic out of the day.+==== References ====
  
-For further reading, see Krusche et al. 2012. For mindfulness online, a preliminary evaluation of the feasibility of a web-based mindfulness course and the impact on stress is available at BMJ Open, 2(3).+  * Baer, R. A. (2011). Measuring mindfulness. Contemporary Buddhism, 12(1), 241-261. 
 +  * Becker, M. W., Alzahabi, R., & Hopwood, C. J. (2013). Media multitasking is associated with symptoms of depression and social anxiety. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 16(2), 132-135. 
 +  * Brown, K. W., & Ryan, R. M. (2003). The benefits of being present: Mindfulness and its role in psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(4), 822-848. 
 +  * Brown, K. W., Ryan, R. M., & Creswell, J. D. (2007). Mindfulness: Theoretical foundations and evidence for its salutary effects. Psychological Inquiry, 18(4), 211-237. 
 +  * Chiesa, A., & Serretti, A. (2010). A systematic review of neurobiological and clinical features of mindfulness meditations. Psychological Medicine, 40(8), 1239-1252. 
 +  * Chodron, P. (2007). How to meditate with Pema Chodron: A practical guide to making friends with your mind. Boulder, CO: Sounds True. 
 +  * Cohen, S., Kamarck, T., & Mermelstein, R. (1983). A global measure of perceived stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24(4), 385-396. 
 +  * Feltham, F., & Loke, L. (2012). The slow floor: Towards an awareness of bodily movement through interactive walking surfaces. Paper presented at the workshop "The Body in Design," at the 24th Australian Computer-Human Interaction Conference, OzCHI ’12, Melbourne, VIC, Australia, November 26-30. 
 +  * Grossman, P., Niemann, L., Schmidt, S., & Walach, H. (2004). Mindfulness-based stress reduction and health benefits. A meta-analysis. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 57(1), 35-43. 
 +  * Hamilton, N. A., Kitzman, H., & Guyotte, S. (2006). Enhancing health and emotion: Mindfulness as a missing link between cognitive therapy and positive psychology. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 20(2), 123-134. 
 +  * Hanh, T. N. (2008). The miracle of mindfulness. New York: Random House. 
 +  * James, W. (1892). Psychology: A briefer course. New York: Henry Holt. 
 +  * Kabat-Zinn, J. (1990). Full catastrophe living: Using the wisdom of your body and mind to face stress, pain, and illness. New York: Delacourt. 
 +  * Kabat-Zinn, J. (2003). Mindfulness-based interventions in context: Past, present, and future. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 10(2), 144-156. 
 +  * Kahneman, D. (2013). Thinking, fast and slow (p. 512). New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. 
 +  * Kahneman, D., Krueger, A. B., Schkade, D. A., Schwarz, N. S., & Stone, A. A. (2004). A survey method for characterizing daily life experience: The day reconstruction method. Science, 306(5702), 1776-1780. 
 +  * Khalsa, S. S., Rudrauf, D., Damasio, A. R., Davidson, R. J., Lutz, A., & Tranel, D. (2008). Interoceptive awareness in experienced meditators. Psychophysiology, 45(4), 671-677. 
 +  * Killingsworth, M. A., & Gilbert, D. T. (2010). A wandering mind is an unhappy mind. Science, 330(6006), 932. 
 +  * Krusche, A., Cyhlarova, E., King, S., & Williams, J. M. G. (2012). Mindfulness online: A preliminary evaluation of the feasibility of a web-based mindfulness course and the impact on stress. BMJ Open, 2(3). Retrieved from http://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/2/3/e000803.full.html. 
 +  * Lutz, A., Dunne, J. D., & Davidson, R. J. (2006). Meditation and the neuroscience of consciousness: An introduction. In P. D. Zelazo, M. Moscovitch, and E. Thompson (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Consciousness (pp. 497-550). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 
 +  * Morledge, T. J., Allexandre, D., Fox, E., Fu, A. Z., Higashi, M. K., Kruzikas, D. T., … Reese, P. R. (2013). Feasibility of an online mindfulness program for stress management: A randomized, controlled trial. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 46(2):137-148. 
 +  * Negroponte, N. 1995. Being digital. New York: Vintage. 
 +  * Pea, R., Nass, C., Meheula, L., Rance, M., Kumar, A., Bamford, H., … Zhou, M. (2012). Media use, face-to-face communication, media multitasking, and social well-being among 8- to 12-year-old girls. Developmental Psychology, 48(2), 327-336. 
 +  * Plasier, S., Bulut, M., & Aarts, R. (2011). A study of monaural beat effects on brain activity using an electronic singing bowl. Annual Symposium of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBS). Benelux Chapter, December 2 (Brussels/Leuven, Belgium). 
 +  * Quintana, M., & Rivera, O. (2012). Mindfulness training online for stress reduction, a global measure. Studies in Health Technology and Informatics, 181, 143-148. 
 +  * Ryan, T. (2012). A mindful nation. Carlsbad, CA: Hay House. 
 +  * Segal, Z. V., Williams, J. M. G., & Teasdale, J. D. (2012). Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for depression (p. 471). New York: Guilford Press. 
 +  * Speca, M., Carlson, L. E., Goodey, E., & Angen, M. (2000). A randomized, wait-list controlled clinical trial: The effect of a mindfulness meditation-based stress reduction program on mood and symptoms of stress in cancer outpatients. Psychosomatic Medicine, 62(5), 613-622. 
 +  * Stinson, B., & Arthur, D. (2013). A novel EEG for alpha brain state training, neurobiofeedback, and behavior change. Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice, 19(3), 114-118. 
 +  * Vidyarthi, J., & Riecke, B. (2013). Mediated meditation: Cultivating mindfulness with sonic cradle. In CHI13 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systems (pp. 2305-2314). New York: ACM. 
 +  * Walach, H., Buchheld, N., Buttenmuller, V., Kleinknecht, N., & Schmidt, S. (2006). Measuring mindfulness-the Freiburg Mindfulness Inventory (FMI). Personality and Individual Differences, 40(8), 1543-1555. 
 +  * Wang, Z., & Tchernev, J. M. (2012). The "myth" of media multitasking: Reciprocal dynamics of media multitasking, personal needs, and gratifications. Journal of Communication, 62(3), 493-513. 
 +  * Williams, J. M. G., & Kabat-Zinn, J. (Eds.). (2013). Mindfulness: Diverse perspectives on its meaning, origins, and multiple applications at the intersection of science and dharma. New York: Routledge. 
 +  * Yu, M.-C., Wu, H., Lee, M.-S., & Hung, Y.-P. (2012). Multimedia-assisted breathwalk-aware system. IEEE Transactions on Bio-medical Engineering, 59(12), 3276-3282.
  
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