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book:positive_computing:7_motivation_engagement_and_flow [2016/07/12 11:23] – hkimscilbook:positive_computing:7_motivation_engagement_and_flow [2016/07/12 11:28] (current) – hkimscil
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 I can hear the threatening moans of the undead gaining on me from behind. Picking up the pace, I break into a run, and my heart quickens. I round a sharp corner, cut through the park, and finally welcome the reassuring news through my earbuds: "Zombies evaded." I pick up some virtual medical supplies and head for home. I can hear the threatening moans of the undead gaining on me from behind. Picking up the pace, I break into a run, and my heart quickens. I round a sharp corner, cut through the park, and finally welcome the reassuring news through my earbuds: "Zombies evaded." I pick up some virtual medical supplies and head for home.
  
-Jogging for your life in the midst of a zombie apocalypse is just one of the many ingenious ways designers have conceived to get people motivated in the modern world.1 The reality is, I’m not the Nike+ type (Dorian, here). I don’t feel like an amazing athlete, not even with a wristband or strategically triggered applause. But immerse me with agency in the unfolding of a satirical suspense narrative, and I’ve managed a heart-pumping run through the neighborhood?all before breakfast.+Jogging for your life in the midst of a zombie apocalypse is just one of the many ingenious ways designers have conceived to get people motivated in the modern world.1 The reality is, I’m not the Nike+ type (Dorian, here). I don’t feel like an amazing athlete, not even with a wristband or strategically triggered applause. But immerse me with agency in the unfolding of a satirical suspense narrative, and I’ve managed a heart-pumping run through the neighborhood -- all before breakfast.
  
 Motivation and wellbeing intermingle in sophisticated ways. Not only is motivation fundamental to taking any kind of positive action, but the absence of it is a hallmark of depression. Clearly, a life rich in motivation is more rewarding than life without. Motivation and wellbeing intermingle in sophisticated ways. Not only is motivation fundamental to taking any kind of positive action, but the absence of it is a hallmark of depression. Clearly, a life rich in motivation is more rewarding than life without.
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 Motivational theories, too numerous to cover here, have generally focused on either social underpinnings, psychological drivers (e.g., cognitive), and biological factors. We look at several of the major theories and issues and begin with a point of contention impossible to omit from any discussion of motivation. Motivational theories, too numerous to cover here, have generally focused on either social underpinnings, psychological drivers (e.g., cognitive), and biological factors. We look at several of the major theories and issues and begin with a point of contention impossible to omit from any discussion of motivation.
  
-==== Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation?a Sibling Rivalry ====+==== Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation -- a Sibling Rivalry ====
  
 If I engage in an activity because it’s fun, I am said to be intrinsically motivated. In a sense, the activity is its own reward. If I engage because I fear the stick or crave the carrot, I am said to be extrinsically motivated. The carrot represents a reward separate to the task (e.g., money, points, or approval), and the stick is, of course, a punishment (e.g., exclusion, demotion, or imprisonment), each of which resides outside myself and is controlled by some mechanism external to me (a parent, a boss, or a judge). As Richard Ryan and Edward Deci (2000) put it, "The most basic distinction is between intrinsic motivation, which refers to doing something because it is inherently interesting or enjoyable, and extrinsic motivation, which refers to doing something because it leads to a separable outcome." If I engage in an activity because it’s fun, I am said to be intrinsically motivated. In a sense, the activity is its own reward. If I engage because I fear the stick or crave the carrot, I am said to be extrinsically motivated. The carrot represents a reward separate to the task (e.g., money, points, or approval), and the stick is, of course, a punishment (e.g., exclusion, demotion, or imprisonment), each of which resides outside myself and is controlled by some mechanism external to me (a parent, a boss, or a judge). As Richard Ryan and Edward Deci (2000) put it, "The most basic distinction is between intrinsic motivation, which refers to doing something because it is inherently interesting or enjoyable, and extrinsic motivation, which refers to doing something because it leads to a separable outcome."
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-At the foundation of modern motivational theory sits Abraham Maslow’s (1943) hierarchy of human needs. According to this influential theory, we are driven by five levels of needs: "It is quite true that man lives by bread alone?when there is no bread. But what happens to man’s desires when there is plenty of bread and when his belly is chronically filled?" Maslow goes on to answer this question with a list of need categories, each prerequisite to the next, suggesting that a new category is "unlocked" only once the previous category has been reasonably satisfied.+At the foundation of modern motivational theory sits Abraham Maslow’s (1943) hierarchy of human needs. According to this influential theory, we are driven by five levels of needs: "It is quite true that man lives by bread alone --when there is no bread. But what happens to man’s desires when there is plenty of bread and when his belly is chronically filled?" Maslow goes on to answer this question with a list of need categories, each prerequisite to the next, suggesting that a new category is "unlocked" only once the previous category has been reasonably satisfied.
  
   - Physiological needs, such as food, air, and sleep are primary. Only when these needs are met (and, Maslow argues, they generally are outside of emergency situations) can humans move on to other needs.   - Physiological needs, such as food, air, and sleep are primary. Only when these needs are met (and, Maslow argues, they generally are outside of emergency situations) can humans move on to other needs.
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 In the search for fundamental human needs, others have followed Maslow. Steven Reiss (2004) has proposed a set of 16 basic desires, most of which can be filed into Maslow’s hierarchy, with the exception, perhaps, of idealism, power, and vengeance. More recent theories on human motivation have given concepts related to autonomy and competence a more central role, such as Ryan and Deci’s SDT mentioned in chapter 2. Also among the most notable is the work of Carol Dweck. In the search for fundamental human needs, others have followed Maslow. Steven Reiss (2004) has proposed a set of 16 basic desires, most of which can be filed into Maslow’s hierarchy, with the exception, perhaps, of idealism, power, and vengeance. More recent theories on human motivation have given concepts related to autonomy and competence a more central role, such as Ryan and Deci’s SDT mentioned in chapter 2. Also among the most notable is the work of Carol Dweck.
  
-==== "I Think I Am" versus "I Think I Can"?Fixed and Growth Mindsets ====+==== "I Think I Am" versus "I Think I Can" -- Fixed and Growth Mindsets ====
  
  
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 These findings can also inform the design of applications that help people set and follow up with goals. Goal-setting tools span a broad spectrum, including those that draw explicitly on psychological theory as well as those that focus more on technical sophistication. What Dweck’s research shows us with regard to wellbeing is that it’s not just the goals you set that are important, but how you think about them and about yourself in relation to them. Therefore, goal-setting tools can impact wellbeing not only by supporting wellness-related goals (I vow to run more or eat better), but also in terms of how they support thinking around goal setting. Trash talk, leaderboards, task breakdown, and deadlines are all approaches to motivating someone toward reaching a goal, and these strategies may or may not have positive impacts on wellbeing depending on the context. Goal setting has been shown to be highly effective in many contexts, but it is not entirely free from caveats when it comes to wellbeing. These findings can also inform the design of applications that help people set and follow up with goals. Goal-setting tools span a broad spectrum, including those that draw explicitly on psychological theory as well as those that focus more on technical sophistication. What Dweck’s research shows us with regard to wellbeing is that it’s not just the goals you set that are important, but how you think about them and about yourself in relation to them. Therefore, goal-setting tools can impact wellbeing not only by supporting wellness-related goals (I vow to run more or eat better), but also in terms of how they support thinking around goal setting. Trash talk, leaderboards, task breakdown, and deadlines are all approaches to motivating someone toward reaching a goal, and these strategies may or may not have positive impacts on wellbeing depending on the context. Goal setting has been shown to be highly effective in many contexts, but it is not entirely free from caveats when it comes to wellbeing.
  
-==== Goal Setting?Implications for Wellbeing ====+==== Goal Setting -- Implications for Wellbeing ====
  
 Goal-setting theory has provided a framework for investigation into how and under what circumstances defining goals influences things such as performance, self-efficacy, and satisfaction, particularly within organizational and educational settings. Explicit goals are used as motivators, and researchers such as Edwin Locke and Gary Latham have consistently found that setting specific, difficult goals leads to higher performance by individuals and teams. As such, goals are often used, especially in workplaces, to boost productivity and achievement. However, Lock and Latham’s research also shows that the effectiveness of goal setting is dependent on contextual factors such as task difficulty, competence, framing, and self-efficacy. They discuss some of these moderators of goal effects in their essay "New Directions in Goal-Setting Theory" (Locke & Latham, 2006). Goal-setting theory has provided a framework for investigation into how and under what circumstances defining goals influences things such as performance, self-efficacy, and satisfaction, particularly within organizational and educational settings. Explicit goals are used as motivators, and researchers such as Edwin Locke and Gary Latham have consistently found that setting specific, difficult goals leads to higher performance by individuals and teams. As such, goals are often used, especially in workplaces, to boost productivity and achievement. However, Lock and Latham’s research also shows that the effectiveness of goal setting is dependent on contextual factors such as task difficulty, competence, framing, and self-efficacy. They discuss some of these moderators of goal effects in their essay "New Directions in Goal-Setting Theory" (Locke & Latham, 2006).
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 Clearly, technology designed to promote motivation and wellbeing through goal setting must keep in mind the need for balance and be skeptical of overly simplistic views of goal-setting psychology. As always, a technology team’s greatest safeguard is collaboration with mental health professionals. Clearly, technology designed to promote motivation and wellbeing through goal setting must keep in mind the need for balance and be skeptical of overly simplistic views of goal-setting psychology. As always, a technology team’s greatest safeguard is collaboration with mental health professionals.
  
-There is still much investigation to be done around the effects of various types of tracking, goal setting, self-evaluation, and game mechanics with regard to their roles in appropriate balance?for example, balance between positive thinking and heartfelt authenticity, between directedness and present-moment attention, between drive and calm, desire and contentment, dissatisfaction and acceptance, and other balance relationships related to goals that impact psychological wealth and wellbeing.+There is still much investigation to be done around the effects of various types of tracking, goal setting, self-evaluation, and game mechanics with regard to their roles in appropriate balance -- for example, balance between positive thinking and heartfelt authenticity, between directedness and present-moment attention, between drive and calm, desire and contentment, dissatisfaction and acceptance, and other balance relationships related to goals that impact psychological wealth and wellbeing.
  
 ==== Social Motivators ==== ==== Social Motivators ====
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 Consolvo (2009b) argues that technologies that support behavior change should support impression management, the individual’s movement between Goffman’s "front-stage" and "back-stage" behaviors. She urges that these technologies need to allow users to manage backstage access. For example, if a user wants to misrepresent an event or conceal an action, the system should support this type of behavior. (Not everyone wants his or her personal foibles or failed exercise routines made public.) This requirement offers social affordances that are common in day-to-day life (we don’t advertise these in person either). Consolvo (2009b) argues that technologies that support behavior change should support impression management, the individual’s movement between Goffman’s "front-stage" and "back-stage" behaviors. She urges that these technologies need to allow users to manage backstage access. For example, if a user wants to misrepresent an event or conceal an action, the system should support this type of behavior. (Not everyone wants his or her personal foibles or failed exercise routines made public.) This requirement offers social affordances that are common in day-to-day life (we don’t advertise these in person either).
  
-The combination of Goffman’s work and cognitive dissonance theory (Festinger, 1957) provides a useful framework for the design of behavior-change applications, but they do rely on some important assumptions?for example, that our self-control goals always increase our chances of goal achievement. Yet we all have experience with some level of rebelliousness. One of us (Dorian) believes that if a phone were to tell her to put down that brownie because the digital scale sent data to say that she was getting fat, she would probably break the phone and eat two brownies. Work on "ironic processes" (Wegner, Schneider, Carter, & White, 1987) has demonstrated that when trying hard not to think about something, people will think about it more.+The combination of Goffman’s work and cognitive dissonance theory (Festinger, 1957) provides a useful framework for the design of behavior-change applications, but they do rely on some important assumptions -- for example, that our self-control goals always increase our chances of goal achievement. Yet we all have experience with some level of rebelliousness. One of us (Dorian) believes that if a phone were to tell her to put down that brownie because the digital scale sent data to say that she was getting fat, she would probably break the phone and eat two brownies. Work on "ironic processes" (Wegner, Schneider, Carter, & White, 1987) has demonstrated that when trying hard not to think about something, people will think about it more.
  
 Moreover, as mentioned in the chapter on positive emotions, denying negative feelings or enforcing positive thinking via affirmations can have damaging effects to wellbeing. Moreover, there will be cases in which some people’s personal health goals are self-destructive (as in the case of those with anorexia, for example). As part of future research in personal informatics, behavior change, and positive computing, we will need to work on better understanding such complicating issues and their relationship to design and to find ways to devise designs that favor balanced and holistic approaches. Moreover, as mentioned in the chapter on positive emotions, denying negative feelings or enforcing positive thinking via affirmations can have damaging effects to wellbeing. Moreover, there will be cases in which some people’s personal health goals are self-destructive (as in the case of those with anorexia, for example). As part of future research in personal informatics, behavior change, and positive computing, we will need to work on better understanding such complicating issues and their relationship to design and to find ways to devise designs that favor balanced and holistic approaches.
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 As described in chapter 4, there are other approaches to supporting motivation for behavior change. One that has rapidly gained popularity among those working on population-wide wellbeing initiatives goes by the name of the book that popularized it: Nudge. As described in chapter 4, there are other approaches to supporting motivation for behavior change. One that has rapidly gained popularity among those working on population-wide wellbeing initiatives goes by the name of the book that popularized it: Nudge.
  
-===== Nudging Positive Change?Designers as Choice Architects =====+===== Nudging Positive Change -- Designers as Choice Architects =====
  
 Nudge theory can be applied to technology design, but it has been more famously positioned as a model for public policy with the distinct aim to improve organizations and society. Nudge theory can be applied to technology design, but it has been more famously positioned as a model for public policy with the distinct aim to improve organizations and society.
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   * Emotional engagement is assessed by detecting supportive emotions (e.g., interest) and the absence of negative, withdrawal emotions (e.g., anxiety or boredom).   * Emotional engagement is assessed by detecting supportive emotions (e.g., interest) and the absence of negative, withdrawal emotions (e.g., anxiety or boredom).
   * Cognitive engagement is demonstrated when the student uses sophisticated rather than superficial learning strategies.   * Cognitive engagement is demonstrated when the student uses sophisticated rather than superficial learning strategies.
-  * Behavioral engagement is generally assessed by observing concentration, attention, and effort (e.g., time on task). This type of engagement is the most straightforward to measure automatically?for example, by using computer vision techniques or behavioral analytics based on the digital traces left during online activities.+  * Behavioral engagement is generally assessed by observing concentration, attention, and effort (e.g., time on task). This type of engagement is the most straightforward to measure automatically -- for example, by using computer vision techniques or behavioral analytics based on the digital traces left during online activities.
   * Agentic engagement is signaled by the student’s active contribution to her learning experience (e.g., through creativity and innovation).   * Agentic engagement is signaled by the student’s active contribution to her learning experience (e.g., through creativity and innovation).
  
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 So do videogames increase or decrease wellbeing? According to research, the answer is: both. Our challenge is to pull apart the fibers of the digital gaming experience until we can better understand which characteristics improve wellbeing in what contexts and which don’t. So do videogames increase or decrease wellbeing? According to research, the answer is: both. Our challenge is to pull apart the fibers of the digital gaming experience until we can better understand which characteristics improve wellbeing in what contexts and which don’t.
  
-When it comes to books, whether reading improves or decreases your wellbeing depends largely on content. With videogames, content is significant, but there are also critical wellbeing implications for how a game is played and who it’s played with (Johnson, Jones, Scholes, & Colder Carras, 2013)?in other words, the social context and the game mechanics.+When it comes to books, whether reading improves or decreases your wellbeing depends largely on content. With videogames, content is significant, but there are also critical wellbeing implications for how a game is played and who it’s played with (Johnson, Jones, Scholes, & Colder Carras, 2013) -- in other words, the social context and the game mechanics.
  
 Exposure to violent videogames has consistently been shown to increase aggression, desensitize to violence, and reduce prosocial behavior. For example, a recent meta-analytic review (Anderson et al., 2010) concludes that "the evidence strongly suggests that exposure to violent video games is a causal risk factor for increased aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition, and aggressive affect and for decreased empathy and prosocial behavior." Exposure to violent videogames has consistently been shown to increase aggression, desensitize to violence, and reduce prosocial behavior. For example, a recent meta-analytic review (Anderson et al., 2010) concludes that "the evidence strongly suggests that exposure to violent video games is a causal risk factor for increased aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition, and aggressive affect and for decreased empathy and prosocial behavior."
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 Carmen Russoniello, Kevin O’Brien, and Jennifer Parks (2009) showed the ability of casual games to reduce stress, anxiety, and depression. As mentioned in chapter 6, a recent review of digital games (Johnson et al., 2013) looked at their impact on young people’s wellbeing and concluded that they "positively influence young people’s emotional state, self-esteem, optimism, vitality, resilience, engagement, relationships, sense of competence, self-acceptance and social connections and functioning." Carmen Russoniello, Kevin O’Brien, and Jennifer Parks (2009) showed the ability of casual games to reduce stress, anxiety, and depression. As mentioned in chapter 6, a recent review of digital games (Johnson et al., 2013) looked at their impact on young people’s wellbeing and concluded that they "positively influence young people’s emotional state, self-esteem, optimism, vitality, resilience, engagement, relationships, sense of competence, self-acceptance and social connections and functioning."
  
-This impact suggests that games are still largely untapped for positive-computing research and design. Of course, in the midst of our enthusiasm, we must still be careful to resist sweeping generalizations. That some studies have shown that some specific casual games can decrease stress and depression is very significant and means we can design for that outcome?but it doesn’t follow that all games or even all casual games do this for all people or that secondary effects may not also emerge.+This impact suggests that games are still largely untapped for positive-computing research and design. Of course, in the midst of our enthusiasm, we must still be careful to resist sweeping generalizations. That some studies have shown that some specific casual games can decrease stress and depression is very significant and means we can design for that outcome -- but it doesn’t follow that all games or even all casual games do this for all people or that secondary effects may not also emerge.
  
 By way of anecdotal illustration, many of us have probably already enjoyed the stress-relieving qualities of Bejewelled, the popular game that proved therapeutic in the East Carolina study (Russoniello, O’Brien, & Parks, 2009). However, this same game has multiple incarnations, one of which, Bejewelled Blitz, is styled with all the bells-and-whistle rewards of slot machines and gambling. As enjoyable as I (Dorian) found it myself, I was persuaded to remove it from my tablet when my seven-year-old began begging me for money to use on gambling in the game. I shuddered to think it might be conditioning his formative mind to respond all the more rapidly to this kind of manipulation later in life. By way of anecdotal illustration, many of us have probably already enjoyed the stress-relieving qualities of Bejewelled, the popular game that proved therapeutic in the East Carolina study (Russoniello, O’Brien, & Parks, 2009). However, this same game has multiple incarnations, one of which, Bejewelled Blitz, is styled with all the bells-and-whistle rewards of slot machines and gambling. As enjoyable as I (Dorian) found it myself, I was persuaded to remove it from my tablet when my seven-year-old began begging me for money to use on gambling in the game. I shuddered to think it might be conditioning his formative mind to respond all the more rapidly to this kind of manipulation later in life.
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-The Zombies, Run! game, alluded to at the start of this chapter, is one of a multitude of apps and "exergames" whose primary offering is motivation?namely, motivation to do things we don’t otherwise feel intrinsically motivated to do. We may want to do things that improve our wellbeing, but when those things also require effort or are unpleasant in the moment, we are at odds with the pleasure principle. Technology, sometimes via gamification, can step in to resolve the conflict. By layering experience and challenge that are intrinsically enjoyable (e.g., playing a part in a zombie narrative) over the activity that isn’t (e.g., running), if the two activities are sufficiently intertwined (running becomes part of the story), then the whole experience can become more rewarding, thereby increasing our intrinsic motivation to take part.+The Zombies, Run! game, alluded to at the start of this chapter, is one of a multitude of apps and "exergames" whose primary offering is motivation -- namely, motivation to do things we don’t otherwise feel intrinsically motivated to do. We may want to do things that improve our wellbeing, but when those things also require effort or are unpleasant in the moment, we are at odds with the pleasure principle. Technology, sometimes via gamification, can step in to resolve the conflict. By layering experience and challenge that are intrinsically enjoyable (e.g., playing a part in a zombie narrative) over the activity that isn’t (e.g., running), if the two activities are sufficiently intertwined (running becomes part of the story), then the whole experience can become more rewarding, thereby increasing our intrinsic motivation to take part.
  
-Uplifted, created by the United Kingdom’s Channel 4 for promoting positive emotions, takes a slightly different approach and embeds moments of positive reflection into an Angry Birds?style casual game. The game and reflection are thematically linked but not intrinsically linked as they occur separately and have little bearing on one another.+Uplifted, created by the United Kingdom’s Channel 4 for promoting positive emotions, takes a slightly different approach and embeds moments of positive reflection into an Angry Birds -- style casual game. The game and reflection are thematically linked but not intrinsically linked as they occur separately and have little bearing on one another.
  
 Other approaches engage our self-determined extrinsic motivation by helping us to articulate and track goals, be they larger goals (I will eat healthier) or smaller subgoals (I will chug a glass of water every morning) in aid of closing the gap between our behavior and our goals and values. Other approaches engage our self-determined extrinsic motivation by helping us to articulate and track goals, be they larger goals (I will eat healthier) or smaller subgoals (I will chug a glass of water every morning) in aid of closing the gap between our behavior and our goals and values.
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 ==== References ==== ==== References ====
- +  * Anderson, C. A., Shibuya, A., Ihori, N., Swing, E. L., Bushman, B. J., Sakamoto, A., … Saleem, M. (2010). Violent video game effects on aggression, empathy, and prosocial behavior in eastern and western countries: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 136(2), 151-173. 
-  * Anderson, C. A., Shibuya, A., Ihori, N., Swing, E. L., Bushman, B. J., Sakamoto, A., … Saleem, M. (2010). Violent video game effects on aggression, empathy, and prosocial behavior in eastern and western countries: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 136(2), 151?173. +  * Baranowski, T., Buday, R., Thompson, D. I., & Baranowski, J. (2008). Playing for real: Video games and stories for health-related behavior change. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 34(1), 74-82. 
-  * Baranowski, T., Buday, R., Thompson, D. I., & Baranowski, J. (2008). Playing for real: Video games and stories for health-related behavior change. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 34(1), 74?82. +  * Calvo, R. A., & D’Mello, S. (2010). Affect Detection: An Interdisciplinary Review of Models,Methods, and their Applications. IEEE Transactions on Affective Computing, 1(1), 18-37.
-  * Calvo, R. A., & D’Mello, S. (2010). Affect Detection: An Interdisciplinary Review of Models,Methods, and their Applications. IEEE Transactions on Affective Computing, 1(1), 18?37.+
   * Calvo, R. A., Peters, D., Johnson, D., & Rogers, Y. (2014). Autonomy in technology design. In CHI’14 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systeMs. New York: ACM.   * Calvo, R. A., Peters, D., Johnson, D., & Rogers, Y. (2014). Autonomy in technology design. In CHI’14 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systeMs. New York: ACM.
-  * Christakis, N. A., & Fowler, J. H. (2007). The spread of obesity in a large social network over 32 years. New England Journal of Medicine, 357(4), 370?379.+  * Christakis, N. A., & Fowler, J. H. (2007). The spread of obesity in a large social network over 32 years. New England Journal of Medicine, 357(4), 370-379.
   * Christenson, S. L., Reschly, A. L., & Wylie, C. (Eds.). (2012). Handbook of research in student engagement. New York: Springer.   * Christenson, S. L., Reschly, A. L., & Wylie, C. (Eds.). (2012). Handbook of research in student engagement. New York: Springer.
-  * Consolvo, S. (2009a). Designing for behavior change in everyday life. IEEE Computer, 42(6), 100?103. +  * Consolvo, S. (2009a). Designing for behavior change in everyday life. IEEE Computer, 42(6), 100-103. 
-  * Consolvo, S. (2009b). Theory-driven design strategies for technologies that support behavior change in everyday life. In Proceedings of the 27th International Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 405?414). New York: ACM. +  * Consolvo, S. (2009b). Theory-driven design strategies for technologies that support behavior change in everyday life. In Proceedings of the 27th International Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 405-414). New York: ACM. 
-  * Consolvo, S., & Everitt, K. (2006). Design requirements for technologies that encourage physical activity. In CHI ’06 proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 457?466). New York: ACM.+  * Consolvo, S., & Everitt, K. (2006). Design requirements for technologies that encourage physical activity. In CHI ’06 proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 457-466). New York: ACM.
   * Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1997). Finding flow: The psychology of engagement with everyday life. New York: Basic Books.   * Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1997). Finding flow: The psychology of engagement with everyday life. New York: Basic Books.
   * Dourish, P. (2004). Where the action is: The foundations of embodied interaction. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.   * Dourish, P. (2004). Where the action is: The foundations of embodied interaction. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
   * Dweck, C. S. (2006). Mindset: The new psychology of success. New York: Ballantine Books.   * Dweck, C. S. (2006). Mindset: The new psychology of success. New York: Ballantine Books.
-  * Dweck, C. S., & Leggett, E. L. (1988). A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality. Psychological Review, 95(2), 256?273.+  * Dweck, C. S., & Leggett, E. L. (1988). A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality. Psychological Review, 95(2), 256-273.
   * Engeser, S. (Ed.). (2012). Advances in flow research. New York: Springer.   * Engeser, S. (Ed.). (2012). Advances in flow research. New York: Springer.
   * Festinger, L. (1957). The theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.   * Festinger, L. (1957). The theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
-  * Fogg, B. J. (2009). A behavior model for persuasive design. Paper presented at Persuasive 2009, 4th International Conference on Persuasive Technology. Claremont, CA. April 26?29.+  * Fogg, B. J. (2009). A behavior model for persuasive design. Paper presented at Persuasive 2009, 4th International Conference on Persuasive Technology. Claremont, CA. April 26-29.
   * Gartner says by 2015, more than 50 percent of organizations that manage innovation processes will gamify those processes. (2011). Gartner Newsroom, April 12. http://gartner.com/newsroom/id/1629214.   * Gartner says by 2015, more than 50 percent of organizations that manage innovation processes will gamify those processes. (2011). Gartner Newsroom, April 12. http://gartner.com/newsroom/id/1629214.
-  * Gentile, D. A., Anderson, C. A., Yukawa, S., Ihori, N., Saleem, M., Ming, L. K., … Sakamoto, A. (2009). The effects of prosocial video games on prosocial behaviors: International evidence from correlational, longitudinal, and experimental studies. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 35(6), 752?763.+  * Gentile, D. A., Anderson, C. A., Yukawa, S., Ihori, N., Saleem, M., Ming, L. K., … Sakamoto, A. (2009). The effects of prosocial video games on prosocial behaviors: International evidence from correlational, longitudinal, and experimental studies. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 35(6), 752-763.
   * Goffman, E. (1959). The presentation of self in everyday life. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.   * Goffman, E. (1959). The presentation of self in everyday life. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.
   * Graham, S., & Weiner, B. (2012). Motivation: Past, present and future. In K.R. Harris., S. Graham., & T. Urdan (Eds), APA educational psychology handbook (pp. 367-398). APA: Washington.   * Graham, S., & Weiner, B. (2012). Motivation: Past, present and future. In K.R. Harris., S. Graham., & T. Urdan (Eds), APA educational psychology handbook (pp. 367-398). APA: Washington.
-  * Greene, D., & Lepper, M. R. (1974). Effects of extrinsic rewards on children’s subsequent intrinsic interest. Child Development, 45, 1141?1145. +  * Greene, D., & Lepper, M. R. (1974). Effects of extrinsic rewards on children’s subsequent intrinsic interest. Child Development, 45, 1141-1145. 
-  * Grafsgaard, J. F., Wiggins, J. B., Boyer, K. E., Wiebe, E. N., & Lester, J. C. (2013). Automatically recognizing facial expression: predicting engagement and frustration. In S. D’Mello, S. K., Calvo, R. A., & Olney, A. (eds.), Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Educational Data Mining. July 6?9, in Memphis, Tennessee, USA. +  * Grafsgaard, J. F., Wiggins, J. B., Boyer, K. E., Wiebe, E. N., & Lester, J. C. (2013). Automatically recognizing facial expression: predicting engagement and frustration. In S. D’Mello, S. K., Calvo, R. A., & Olney, A. (eds.), Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Educational Data Mining. July 6-9, in Memphis, Tennessee, USA. 
-  * Greitemeyer, T., Traut-Mattausch, E., & Osswald, S. (2012). How to ameliorate negative effects of violent video games on cooperation: Play it cooperatively in a team. Computers in Human Behavior, 28(4), 1465?1470. +  * Greitemeyer, T., Traut-Mattausch, E., & Osswald, S. (2012). How to ameliorate negative effects of violent video games on cooperation: Play it cooperatively in a team. Computers in Human Behavior, 28(4), 1465-1470. 
-  * Iskender, M., & Akin, A. (2011). Self-compassion and Internet addiction. TOJET, 10(3), 215?221. +  * Iskender, M., & Akin, A. (2011). Self-compassion and Internet addiction. TOJET, 10(3), 215-221. 
-  * Johnson, D., Jones, C., Scholes, L., & Colder Carras, M. (2013). Videogames and wellbeing: A comprehensive review (pp. 1?37). Melbourne, AU: Young and Well Cooperative Research Centre. +  * Johnson, D., Jones, C., Scholes, L., & Colder Carras, M. (2013). Videogames and wellbeing: A comprehensive review (pp. 1-37). Melbourne, AU: Young and Well Cooperative Research Centre. 
-  * Kayes, D. C. (2004). The 1996 Mount Everest climbing disaster: The breakdown of learning in teams. Human Relations, 57(10), 1263?1284.+  * Kayes, D. C. (2004). The 1996 Mount Everest climbing disaster: The breakdown of learning in teams. Human Relations, 57(10), 1263-1284.
   * Koster, R. (2013). A theory of fun in game design. Phoenix: Paraglyph Press.   * Koster, R. (2013). A theory of fun in game design. Phoenix: Paraglyph Press.
-  * Kuss, D. J., & Griffiths, M. D. (2011). Internet gaming addiction: A systematic review of empirical research. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 10(2), 278?296. +  * Kuss, D. J., & Griffiths, M. D. (2011). Internet gaming addiction: A systematic review of empirical research. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 10(2), 278-296. 
-  * Liem, G. A. D., & Martin, A. J. (2012). The Motivation and Engagement Scale: Theoretical framework, psychometric properties, and applied yields. Australian Psychologist, 47(1), 3?13. +  * Liem, G. A. D., & Martin, A. J. (2012). The Motivation and Engagement Scale: Theoretical framework, psychometric properties, and applied yields. Australian Psychologist, 47(1), 3-13. 
-  * Locke, E., & Latham, G. (2006). New directions in goal-setting theory. Directions in Psychological Science, 15(5), 265?268. +  * Locke, E., & Latham, G. (2006). New directions in goal-setting theory. Directions in Psychological Science, 15(5), 265-268. 
-  * Lyubomirsky, S., & Ross, L. (1997). Hedonic consequences of social comparison: A contrast of happy and unhappy people. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(6), 1141?1157. +  * Lyubomirsky, S., & Ross, L. (1997). Hedonic consequences of social comparison: A contrast of happy and unhappy people. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(6), 1141-1157. 
-  * Martin, A. J. (2007). Examining a multidimensional model of student motivation and engagement using a construct validation approach. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 77(2), 413?440. +  * Martin, A. J. (2007). Examining a multidimensional model of student motivation and engagement using a construct validation approach. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 77(2), 413-440. 
-  * Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50(4), 370?396.+  * Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50(4), 370-396.
   * Miles, M. B. & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.   * Miles, M. B. & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
-  * Nakamura, J., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2009). Flow theory and research. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), Oxford handbook of positive psychology (pp. 195?206). Oxford: Oxford University Press. +  * Nakamura, J., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2009). Flow theory and research. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), Oxford handbook of positive psychology (pp. 195-206). Oxford: Oxford University Press. 
-  * Reiss, S. (2004). Multifaceted nature of intrinsic motivation: The theory of 16 basic desires. Review of General Psychology, 8(3), 179?193. +  * Reiss, S. (2004). Multifaceted nature of intrinsic motivation: The theory of 16 basic desires. Review of General Psychology, 8(3), 179-193. 
-  * Rogers, Y. (2006). Moving on from Weiser’s vision of calm computing: Engaging ubicomp experiences. Proceedings of the 8th International Conference of Ubiquitous Computing, Orange County, CA, USA, September 17?21 (pp. 404?418). Heidelberg: Springer. +  * Rogers, Y. (2006). Moving on from Weiser’s vision of calm computing: Engaging ubicomp experiences. Proceedings of the 8th International Conference of Ubiquitous Computing, Orange County, CA, USA, September 17-21 (pp. 404-418). Heidelberg: Springer. 
-  * Russoniello, C. V, O’Brien, K., & Parks, J. M. (2009). The effectiveness of casual video games in improving mood and decreasing stress. Journal of CyberTherapy and Rehabilitation, 2(1), 53?66. +  * Russoniello, C. V, O’Brien, K., & Parks, J. M. (2009). The effectiveness of casual video games in improving mood and decreasing stress. Journal of CyberTherapy and Rehabilitation, 2(1), 53-66. 
-  * Ryan, R., & Deci, E. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 54?67. doi:10.1006/ceps.1999.1020. +  * Ryan, R., & Deci, E. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 54-67. doi:10.1006/ceps.1999.1020. 
-  * Sharafi, P., Hedman, L., & Montgomery, H. (2006). Using information technology: Engagement modes, flow experience, and personality orientations. Computers in Human Behavior, 22, 899?916. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2004.03.022 +  * Sharafi, P., Hedman, L., & Montgomery, H. (2006). Using information technology: Engagement modes, flow experience, and personality orientations. Computers in Human Behavior, 22, 899-916. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2004.03.022 
-  * Street, H. (2002). Exploring relationships between goal setting, goal pursuit, and depression: A review. Australian Psychologist, 37(2), 95?103. doi:10.1080/00050060210001706736.+  * Street, H. (2002). Exploring relationships between goal setting, goal pursuit, and depression: A review. Australian Psychologist, 37(2), 95-103. doi:10.1080/00050060210001706736.
   * Thaler, R. H., & Sunstein, C. R. (2008). Nudge: Improving decisions about health, wealth, and happiness. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.   * Thaler, R. H., & Sunstein, C. R. (2008). Nudge: Improving decisions about health, wealth, and happiness. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
-  * Velez, J. A., Mahood, C., Ewoldsen, D. R., & Moyer-Guse, E. (2012). Ingroup versus outgroup conflict in the context of violent video game: The effect of cooperation on increased helping and decreased aggression. Communication Research, (August): 1?20. +  * Velez, J. A., Mahood, C., Ewoldsen, D. R., & Moyer-Guse, E. (2012). Ingroup versus outgroup conflict in the context of violent video game: The effect of cooperation on increased helping and decreased aggression. Communication Research, (August): 1-20. 
-  * Wegner, D. M., Schneider, D. J., Carter, S. R., & White, T. L. (1987). Paradoxical effects of thought suppression. Journal of Personality, 53(1), 5?13. +  * Wegner, D. M., Schneider, D. J., Carter, S. R., & White, T. L. (1987). Paradoxical effects of thought suppression. Journal of Personality, 53(1), 5-13. 
-  * White, J. B., Langer, E. J., Yariv, L., & Welch, J. C. (2006). Frequent social comparisons and destructive emotions and behaviors: The dark side of social comparisons. Journal of Adult Development, 13(1), 36?44. +  * White, J. B., Langer, E. J., Yariv, L., & Welch, J. C. (2006). Frequent social comparisons and destructive emotions and behaviors: The dark side of social comparisons. Journal of Adult Development, 13(1), 36-44. 
-  * Yano, K., Lyubomirsky, S., & Chancellor, J. (2012). Sensing happiness. IEEE Spectrum, 49(12), 32?37.+  * Yano, K., Lyubomirsky, S., & Chancellor, J. (2012). Sensing happiness. IEEE Spectrum, 49(12), 32-37.
  
 </WRAP>  | <WRAP> </WRAP>  | <WRAP>
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 I can hear the threatening moans of the undead gaining on me from behind. Picking up the pace, I break into a run, and my heart quickens. I round a sharp corner, cut through the park, and finally welcome the reassuring news through my earbuds: "Zombies evaded." I pick up some virtual medical supplies and head for home. I can hear the threatening moans of the undead gaining on me from behind. Picking up the pace, I break into a run, and my heart quickens. I round a sharp corner, cut through the park, and finally welcome the reassuring news through my earbuds: "Zombies evaded." I pick up some virtual medical supplies and head for home.
  
-Jogging for your life in the midst of a zombie apocalypse is just one of the many ingenious ways designers have conceived to get people motivated in the modern world.1 The reality is, I’m not the Nike+ type (Dorian, here). I don’t feel like an amazing athlete, not even with a wristband or strategically triggered applause. But immerse me with agency in the unfolding of a satirical suspense narrative, and I’ve managed a heart-pumping run through the neighborhood?all before breakfast.+Jogging for your life in the midst of a zombie apocalypse is just one of the many ingenious ways designers have conceived to get people motivated in the modern world.1 The reality is, I’m not the Nike+ type (Dorian, here). I don’t feel like an amazing athlete, not even with a wristband or strategically triggered applause. But immerse me with agency in the unfolding of a satirical suspense narrative, and I’ve managed a heart-pumping run through the neighborhood-all before breakfast.
  
 Motivation and wellbeing intermingle in sophisticated ways. Not only is motivation fundamental to taking any kind of positive action, but the absence of it is a hallmark of depression. Clearly, a life rich in motivation is more rewarding than life without. Motivation and wellbeing intermingle in sophisticated ways. Not only is motivation fundamental to taking any kind of positive action, but the absence of it is a hallmark of depression. Clearly, a life rich in motivation is more rewarding than life without.
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 Motivational theories, too numerous to cover here, have generally focused on either social underpinnings, psychological drivers (e.g., cognitive), and biological factors. We look at several of the major theories and issues and begin with a point of contention impossible to omit from any discussion of motivation. Motivational theories, too numerous to cover here, have generally focused on either social underpinnings, psychological drivers (e.g., cognitive), and biological factors. We look at several of the major theories and issues and begin with a point of contention impossible to omit from any discussion of motivation.
  
-==== Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation?a Sibling Rivalry ====+==== Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation-a Sibling Rivalry ====
  
 If I engage in an activity because it’s fun, I am said to be intrinsically motivated. In a sense, the activity is its own reward. If I engage because I fear the stick or crave the carrot, I am said to be extrinsically motivated. The carrot represents a reward separate to the task (e.g., money, points, or approval), and the stick is, of course, a punishment (e.g., exclusion, demotion, or imprisonment), each of which resides outside myself and is controlled by some mechanism external to me (a parent, a boss, or a judge). As Richard Ryan and Edward Deci (2000) put it, "The most basic distinction is between intrinsic motivation, which refers to doing something because it is inherently interesting or enjoyable, and extrinsic motivation, which refers to doing something because it leads to a separable outcome." If I engage in an activity because it’s fun, I am said to be intrinsically motivated. In a sense, the activity is its own reward. If I engage because I fear the stick or crave the carrot, I am said to be extrinsically motivated. The carrot represents a reward separate to the task (e.g., money, points, or approval), and the stick is, of course, a punishment (e.g., exclusion, demotion, or imprisonment), each of which resides outside myself and is controlled by some mechanism external to me (a parent, a boss, or a judge). As Richard Ryan and Edward Deci (2000) put it, "The most basic distinction is between intrinsic motivation, which refers to doing something because it is inherently interesting or enjoyable, and extrinsic motivation, which refers to doing something because it leads to a separable outcome."
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-At the foundation of modern motivational theory sits Abraham Maslow’s (1943) hierarchy of human needs. According to this influential theory, we are driven by five levels of needs: "It is quite true that man lives by bread alone?when there is no bread. But what happens to man’s desires when there is plenty of bread and when his belly is chronically filled?" Maslow goes on to answer this question with a list of need categories, each prerequisite to the next, suggesting that a new category is "unlocked" only once the previous category has been reasonably satisfied.+At the foundation of modern motivational theory sits Abraham Maslow’s (1943) hierarchy of human needs. According to this influential theory, we are driven by five levels of needs: "It is quite true that man lives by bread alone-when there is no bread. But what happens to man’s desires when there is plenty of bread and when his belly is chronically filled-" Maslow goes on to answer this question with a list of need categories, each prerequisite to the next, suggesting that a new category is "unlocked" only once the previous category has been reasonably satisfied.
  
   - Physiological needs, such as food, air, and sleep are primary. Only when these needs are met (and, Maslow argues, they generally are outside of emergency situations) can humans move on to other needs.   - Physiological needs, such as food, air, and sleep are primary. Only when these needs are met (and, Maslow argues, they generally are outside of emergency situations) can humans move on to other needs.
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 In the search for fundamental human needs, others have followed Maslow. Steven Reiss (2004) has proposed a set of 16 basic desires, most of which can be filed into Maslow’s hierarchy, with the exception, perhaps, of idealism, power, and vengeance. More recent theories on human motivation have given concepts related to autonomy and competence a more central role, such as Ryan and Deci’s SDT mentioned in chapter 2. Also among the most notable is the work of Carol Dweck. In the search for fundamental human needs, others have followed Maslow. Steven Reiss (2004) has proposed a set of 16 basic desires, most of which can be filed into Maslow’s hierarchy, with the exception, perhaps, of idealism, power, and vengeance. More recent theories on human motivation have given concepts related to autonomy and competence a more central role, such as Ryan and Deci’s SDT mentioned in chapter 2. Also among the most notable is the work of Carol Dweck.
  
-==== "I Think I Am" versus "I Think I Can"?Fixed and Growth Mindsets ====+==== "I Think I Am" versus "I Think I Can"-Fixed and Growth Mindsets ====
  
  
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 These findings can also inform the design of applications that help people set and follow up with goals. Goal-setting tools span a broad spectrum, including those that draw explicitly on psychological theory as well as those that focus more on technical sophistication. What Dweck’s research shows us with regard to wellbeing is that it’s not just the goals you set that are important, but how you think about them and about yourself in relation to them. Therefore, goal-setting tools can impact wellbeing not only by supporting wellness-related goals (I vow to run more or eat better), but also in terms of how they support thinking around goal setting. Trash talk, leaderboards, task breakdown, and deadlines are all approaches to motivating someone toward reaching a goal, and these strategies may or may not have positive impacts on wellbeing depending on the context. Goal setting has been shown to be highly effective in many contexts, but it is not entirely free from caveats when it comes to wellbeing. These findings can also inform the design of applications that help people set and follow up with goals. Goal-setting tools span a broad spectrum, including those that draw explicitly on psychological theory as well as those that focus more on technical sophistication. What Dweck’s research shows us with regard to wellbeing is that it’s not just the goals you set that are important, but how you think about them and about yourself in relation to them. Therefore, goal-setting tools can impact wellbeing not only by supporting wellness-related goals (I vow to run more or eat better), but also in terms of how they support thinking around goal setting. Trash talk, leaderboards, task breakdown, and deadlines are all approaches to motivating someone toward reaching a goal, and these strategies may or may not have positive impacts on wellbeing depending on the context. Goal setting has been shown to be highly effective in many contexts, but it is not entirely free from caveats when it comes to wellbeing.
  
-==== Goal Setting?Implications for Wellbeing ====+==== Goal Setting-Implications for Wellbeing ====
  
 Goal-setting theory has provided a framework for investigation into how and under what circumstances defining goals influences things such as performance, self-efficacy, and satisfaction, particularly within organizational and educational settings. Explicit goals are used as motivators, and researchers such as Edwin Locke and Gary Latham have consistently found that setting specific, difficult goals leads to higher performance by individuals and teams. As such, goals are often used, especially in workplaces, to boost productivity and achievement. However, Lock and Latham’s research also shows that the effectiveness of goal setting is dependent on contextual factors such as task difficulty, competence, framing, and self-efficacy. They discuss some of these moderators of goal effects in their essay "New Directions in Goal-Setting Theory" (Locke & Latham, 2006). Goal-setting theory has provided a framework for investigation into how and under what circumstances defining goals influences things such as performance, self-efficacy, and satisfaction, particularly within organizational and educational settings. Explicit goals are used as motivators, and researchers such as Edwin Locke and Gary Latham have consistently found that setting specific, difficult goals leads to higher performance by individuals and teams. As such, goals are often used, especially in workplaces, to boost productivity and achievement. However, Lock and Latham’s research also shows that the effectiveness of goal setting is dependent on contextual factors such as task difficulty, competence, framing, and self-efficacy. They discuss some of these moderators of goal effects in their essay "New Directions in Goal-Setting Theory" (Locke & Latham, 2006).
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 Clearly, technology designed to promote motivation and wellbeing through goal setting must keep in mind the need for balance and be skeptical of overly simplistic views of goal-setting psychology. As always, a technology team’s greatest safeguard is collaboration with mental health professionals. Clearly, technology designed to promote motivation and wellbeing through goal setting must keep in mind the need for balance and be skeptical of overly simplistic views of goal-setting psychology. As always, a technology team’s greatest safeguard is collaboration with mental health professionals.
  
-There is still much investigation to be done around the effects of various types of tracking, goal setting, self-evaluation, and game mechanics with regard to their roles in appropriate balance?for example, balance between positive thinking and heartfelt authenticity, between directedness and present-moment attention, between drive and calm, desire and contentment, dissatisfaction and acceptance, and other balance relationships related to goals that impact psychological wealth and wellbeing.+There is still much investigation to be done around the effects of various types of tracking, goal setting, self-evaluation, and game mechanics with regard to their roles in appropriate balance-for example, balance between positive thinking and heartfelt authenticity, between directedness and present-moment attention, between drive and calm, desire and contentment, dissatisfaction and acceptance, and other balance relationships related to goals that impact psychological wealth and wellbeing.
  
 ==== Social Motivators ==== ==== Social Motivators ====
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 Consolvo (2009b) argues that technologies that support behavior change should support impression management, the individual’s movement between Goffman’s "front-stage" and "back-stage" behaviors. She urges that these technologies need to allow users to manage backstage access. For example, if a user wants to misrepresent an event or conceal an action, the system should support this type of behavior. (Not everyone wants his or her personal foibles or failed exercise routines made public.) This requirement offers social affordances that are common in day-to-day life (we don’t advertise these in person either). Consolvo (2009b) argues that technologies that support behavior change should support impression management, the individual’s movement between Goffman’s "front-stage" and "back-stage" behaviors. She urges that these technologies need to allow users to manage backstage access. For example, if a user wants to misrepresent an event or conceal an action, the system should support this type of behavior. (Not everyone wants his or her personal foibles or failed exercise routines made public.) This requirement offers social affordances that are common in day-to-day life (we don’t advertise these in person either).
  
-The combination of Goffman’s work and cognitive dissonance theory (Festinger, 1957) provides a useful framework for the design of behavior-change applications, but they do rely on some important assumptions?for example, that our self-control goals always increase our chances of goal achievement. Yet we all have experience with some level of rebelliousness. One of us (Dorian) believes that if a phone were to tell her to put down that brownie because the digital scale sent data to say that she was getting fat, she would probably break the phone and eat two brownies. Work on "ironic processes" (Wegner, Schneider, Carter, & White, 1987) has demonstrated that when trying hard not to think about something, people will think about it more.+The combination of Goffman’s work and cognitive dissonance theory (Festinger, 1957) provides a useful framework for the design of behavior-change applications, but they do rely on some important assumptions-for example, that our self-control goals always increase our chances of goal achievement. Yet we all have experience with some level of rebelliousness. One of us (Dorian) believes that if a phone were to tell her to put down that brownie because the digital scale sent data to say that she was getting fat, she would probably break the phone and eat two brownies. Work on "ironic processes" (Wegner, Schneider, Carter, & White, 1987) has demonstrated that when trying hard not to think about something, people will think about it more.
  
 Moreover, as mentioned in the chapter on positive emotions, denying negative feelings or enforcing positive thinking via affirmations can have damaging effects to wellbeing. Moreover, there will be cases in which some people’s personal health goals are self-destructive (as in the case of those with anorexia, for example). As part of future research in personal informatics, behavior change, and positive computing, we will need to work on better understanding such complicating issues and their relationship to design and to find ways to devise designs that favor balanced and holistic approaches. Moreover, as mentioned in the chapter on positive emotions, denying negative feelings or enforcing positive thinking via affirmations can have damaging effects to wellbeing. Moreover, there will be cases in which some people’s personal health goals are self-destructive (as in the case of those with anorexia, for example). As part of future research in personal informatics, behavior change, and positive computing, we will need to work on better understanding such complicating issues and their relationship to design and to find ways to devise designs that favor balanced and holistic approaches.
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 With regard to social influence as a motivator, many current-day apps and websites supply features that allow users to share their milestones and other personal data with others as a way of leveraging the motivational effects of social support and pressure. Of course, the impact of social pressure is not simply always good or always bad. Clearly, the effects of, say, trying to quit smoking may be different depending on whether you are doing it privately or publicly with your friends watching. Peer pressure is notorious in its connotations regarding teen behavior, such as drug use and risk taking. More generally, research by Sonja Lyubomirsky and others (Lyubomirsky & Ross, 1997; White, Langer, Yariv, & Welch, 2006) have highlighted the negative correlation between social comparison and happiness. Furthermore, studies by social psychologists have shown how negative influences can spread in a population (Christakis & Fowler, 2007). With regard to social influence as a motivator, many current-day apps and websites supply features that allow users to share their milestones and other personal data with others as a way of leveraging the motivational effects of social support and pressure. Of course, the impact of social pressure is not simply always good or always bad. Clearly, the effects of, say, trying to quit smoking may be different depending on whether you are doing it privately or publicly with your friends watching. Peer pressure is notorious in its connotations regarding teen behavior, such as drug use and risk taking. More generally, research by Sonja Lyubomirsky and others (Lyubomirsky & Ross, 1997; White, Langer, Yariv, & Welch, 2006) have highlighted the negative correlation between social comparison and happiness. Furthermore, studies by social psychologists have shown how negative influences can spread in a population (Christakis & Fowler, 2007).
  
-At the same time, a multitude of successful mental health and wellbeing programs, including Alcoholics Anonymous, coming-out programs, and the SuperBetter resilience app, encourage the participant to connect with a sponsor or ally. Positive role models, mentors, and social proof can be just as productively influential as the negative variety can be detrimental. An ongoing research and practice question for positive-computing researchers will be: How can we design to promote positive social influence, while preventing the social validation and spread of destructive patterns?+At the same time, a multitude of successful mental health and wellbeing programs, including Alcoholics Anonymous, coming-out programs, and the SuperBetter resilience app, encourage the participant to connect with a sponsor or ally. Positive role models, mentors, and social proof can be just as productively influential as the negative variety can be detrimental. An ongoing research and practice question for positive-computing researchers will be: How can we design to promote positive social influence, while preventing the social validation and spread of destructive patterns-
  
 ===== The Delicate Issue of Persuasion ===== ===== The Delicate Issue of Persuasion =====
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 As described in chapter 4, there are other approaches to supporting motivation for behavior change. One that has rapidly gained popularity among those working on population-wide wellbeing initiatives goes by the name of the book that popularized it: Nudge. As described in chapter 4, there are other approaches to supporting motivation for behavior change. One that has rapidly gained popularity among those working on population-wide wellbeing initiatives goes by the name of the book that popularized it: Nudge.
  
-===== Nudging Positive Change?Designers as Choice Architects =====+===== Nudging Positive Change-Designers as Choice Architects =====
  
 Nudge theory can be applied to technology design, but it has been more famously positioned as a model for public policy with the distinct aim to improve organizations and society. Nudge theory can be applied to technology design, but it has been more famously positioned as a model for public policy with the distinct aim to improve organizations and society.
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   * Emotional engagement is assessed by detecting supportive emotions (e.g., interest) and the absence of negative, withdrawal emotions (e.g., anxiety or boredom).   * Emotional engagement is assessed by detecting supportive emotions (e.g., interest) and the absence of negative, withdrawal emotions (e.g., anxiety or boredom).
   * Cognitive engagement is demonstrated when the student uses sophisticated rather than superficial learning strategies.   * Cognitive engagement is demonstrated when the student uses sophisticated rather than superficial learning strategies.
-  * Behavioral engagement is generally assessed by observing concentration, attention, and effort (e.g., time on task). This type of engagement is the most straightforward to measure automatically?for example, by using computer vision techniques or behavioral analytics based on the digital traces left during online activities.+  * Behavioral engagement is generally assessed by observing concentration, attention, and effort (e.g., time on task). This type of engagement is the most straightforward to measure automatically-for example, by using computer vision techniques or behavioral analytics based on the digital traces left during online activities.
   * Agentic engagement is signaled by the student’s active contribution to her learning experience (e.g., through creativity and innovation).   * Agentic engagement is signaled by the student’s active contribution to her learning experience (e.g., through creativity and innovation).
  
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   - Intrinsic rewards   - Intrinsic rewards
  
-How many technological features are designed to increase productivity, but in ways that become a hindrance to flow experience? (Think of beeping phone notifications.)+How many technological features are designed to increase productivity, but in ways that become a hindrance to flow experience- (Think of beeping phone notifications.)
  
 Csikszentmihalyi (1997) describes flow as an "optimal experience" and a key to happiness. Thorough treatment of the varied affective and cognitive consequences of flow ranging from increased subjective wellbeing and greater life satisfaction to addiction on the extreme negative end are well beyond the scope of this book but are included in the collection Advances in Flow Research (Engeser, 2012). Csikszentmihalyi (1997) describes flow as an "optimal experience" and a key to happiness. Thorough treatment of the varied affective and cognitive consequences of flow ranging from increased subjective wellbeing and greater life satisfaction to addiction on the extreme negative end are well beyond the scope of this book but are included in the collection Advances in Flow Research (Engeser, 2012).
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 When we’re not using our digital devices to engage with learning or work, there’s a good chance we’re using them to play. We’ve been playing games from before we could write (personally and historically), which suggests that games meet basic human psychological needs. One of the great powers of games is their ability to engage us fully. Gaming is an area in which levels of engagement can be particularly high, so digital game research is an obvious place to turn for guidance on engaging users in aid of wellbeing, but also for insight into when engagement becomes addiction and impacts wellbeing for the worse. When we’re not using our digital devices to engage with learning or work, there’s a good chance we’re using them to play. We’ve been playing games from before we could write (personally and historically), which suggests that games meet basic human psychological needs. One of the great powers of games is their ability to engage us fully. Gaming is an area in which levels of engagement can be particularly high, so digital game research is an obvious place to turn for guidance on engaging users in aid of wellbeing, but also for insight into when engagement becomes addiction and impacts wellbeing for the worse.
  
-So do videogames increase or decrease wellbeing? According to research, the answer is: both. Our challenge is to pull apart the fibers of the digital gaming experience until we can better understand which characteristics improve wellbeing in what contexts and which don’t.+So do videogames increase or decrease wellbeing- According to research, the answer is: both. Our challenge is to pull apart the fibers of the digital gaming experience until we can better understand which characteristics improve wellbeing in what contexts and which don’t.
  
-When it comes to books, whether reading improves or decreases your wellbeing depends largely on content. With videogames, content is significant, but there are also critical wellbeing implications for how a game is played and who it’s played with (Johnson, Jones, Scholes, & Colder Carras, 2013)?in other words, the social context and the game mechanics.+When it comes to books, whether reading improves or decreases your wellbeing depends largely on content. With videogames, content is significant, but there are also critical wellbeing implications for how a game is played and who it’s played with (Johnson, Jones, Scholes, & Colder Carras, 2013)-in other words, the social context and the game mechanics.
  
 Exposure to violent videogames has consistently been shown to increase aggression, desensitize to violence, and reduce prosocial behavior. For example, a recent meta-analytic review (Anderson et al., 2010) concludes that "the evidence strongly suggests that exposure to violent video games is a causal risk factor for increased aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition, and aggressive affect and for decreased empathy and prosocial behavior." Exposure to violent videogames has consistently been shown to increase aggression, desensitize to violence, and reduce prosocial behavior. For example, a recent meta-analytic review (Anderson et al., 2010) concludes that "the evidence strongly suggests that exposure to violent video games is a causal risk factor for increased aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition, and aggressive affect and for decreased empathy and prosocial behavior."
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 Carmen Russoniello, Kevin O’Brien, and Jennifer Parks (2009) showed the ability of casual games to reduce stress, anxiety, and depression. As mentioned in chapter 6, a recent review of digital games (Johnson et al., 2013) looked at their impact on young people’s wellbeing and concluded that they "positively influence young people’s emotional state, self-esteem, optimism, vitality, resilience, engagement, relationships, sense of competence, self-acceptance and social connections and functioning." Carmen Russoniello, Kevin O’Brien, and Jennifer Parks (2009) showed the ability of casual games to reduce stress, anxiety, and depression. As mentioned in chapter 6, a recent review of digital games (Johnson et al., 2013) looked at their impact on young people’s wellbeing and concluded that they "positively influence young people’s emotional state, self-esteem, optimism, vitality, resilience, engagement, relationships, sense of competence, self-acceptance and social connections and functioning."
  
-This impact suggests that games are still largely untapped for positive-computing research and design. Of course, in the midst of our enthusiasm, we must still be careful to resist sweeping generalizations. That some studies have shown that some specific casual games can decrease stress and depression is very significant and means we can design for that outcome?but it doesn’t follow that all games or even all casual games do this for all people or that secondary effects may not also emerge.+This impact suggests that games are still largely untapped for positive-computing research and design. Of course, in the midst of our enthusiasm, we must still be careful to resist sweeping generalizations. That some studies have shown that some specific casual games can decrease stress and depression is very significant and means we can design for that outcome-but it doesn’t follow that all games or even all casual games do this for all people or that secondary effects may not also emerge.
  
 By way of anecdotal illustration, many of us have probably already enjoyed the stress-relieving qualities of Bejewelled, the popular game that proved therapeutic in the East Carolina study (Russoniello, O’Brien, & Parks, 2009). However, this same game has multiple incarnations, one of which, Bejewelled Blitz, is styled with all the bells-and-whistle rewards of slot machines and gambling. As enjoyable as I (Dorian) found it myself, I was persuaded to remove it from my tablet when my seven-year-old began begging me for money to use on gambling in the game. I shuddered to think it might be conditioning his formative mind to respond all the more rapidly to this kind of manipulation later in life. By way of anecdotal illustration, many of us have probably already enjoyed the stress-relieving qualities of Bejewelled, the popular game that proved therapeutic in the East Carolina study (Russoniello, O’Brien, & Parks, 2009). However, this same game has multiple incarnations, one of which, Bejewelled Blitz, is styled with all the bells-and-whistle rewards of slot machines and gambling. As enjoyable as I (Dorian) found it myself, I was persuaded to remove it from my tablet when my seven-year-old began begging me for money to use on gambling in the game. I shuddered to think it might be conditioning his formative mind to respond all the more rapidly to this kind of manipulation later in life.
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 My humble experience is hardly research evidence, but it is illustrative of how multilayered and complex the short- and long-term effects of even apparently simple casual games will be on wellbeing (as well as of how design for optimum profit can come up against design for wellbeing). Inevitably, some design aspects of any technology may contribute to wellbeing, while others may decrease it in parallel. This is what seems to occur with cooperative violent videogames that have been correlated with aggression but also cooperation skills (Greitemeyer, Traut-Mattausch, & Osswald, 2012; Velez, Mahood, Ewoldsen, & Moyer-Guse, 2012). Playing as a team, users can learn valuable cooperation skills and find new ways to connect, but doing so in the context of enacting graphic violence or as part of a simplistic "us" versus "them" mentality are separate aspects with potentially negative consequences for the wellbeing of individuals and society. Game designer Raph Koster (2013) suggests that our gameplay (digital and otherwise) continues to reinforce instinctive skills once critical for our survival as cavemen but now obsolete, such as shooting and aiming (once important for hunting). He also cites "blind obedience to leaders and cultism, rigid hierarchies, binary thinking, the use of force to resolve problems, like seeking like and its converse xenophobia" as common themes based on obsolete skills. He suggests that we should be designing games that evolve with us and reinforce skills relevant to the modern world. By way of example, he highlights the game Diplomacy, which according to Koster is not only an example of a game that reinforces modern skills, but one that also provides "evidence that remarkably subtle interactions can be modeled within the confines of a rule set and traditional role-playing can reach the same heights as literature in the right hands." My humble experience is hardly research evidence, but it is illustrative of how multilayered and complex the short- and long-term effects of even apparently simple casual games will be on wellbeing (as well as of how design for optimum profit can come up against design for wellbeing). Inevitably, some design aspects of any technology may contribute to wellbeing, while others may decrease it in parallel. This is what seems to occur with cooperative violent videogames that have been correlated with aggression but also cooperation skills (Greitemeyer, Traut-Mattausch, & Osswald, 2012; Velez, Mahood, Ewoldsen, & Moyer-Guse, 2012). Playing as a team, users can learn valuable cooperation skills and find new ways to connect, but doing so in the context of enacting graphic violence or as part of a simplistic "us" versus "them" mentality are separate aspects with potentially negative consequences for the wellbeing of individuals and society. Game designer Raph Koster (2013) suggests that our gameplay (digital and otherwise) continues to reinforce instinctive skills once critical for our survival as cavemen but now obsolete, such as shooting and aiming (once important for hunting). He also cites "blind obedience to leaders and cultism, rigid hierarchies, binary thinking, the use of force to resolve problems, like seeking like and its converse xenophobia" as common themes based on obsolete skills. He suggests that we should be designing games that evolve with us and reinforce skills relevant to the modern world. By way of example, he highlights the game Diplomacy, which according to Koster is not only an example of a game that reinforces modern skills, but one that also provides "evidence that remarkably subtle interactions can be modeled within the confines of a rule set and traditional role-playing can reach the same heights as literature in the right hands."
  
-Game addiction is another serious concern for anyone looking to use games to foster psychological wellbeing, and research has implicated risk factors such as personality traits, motivations for playing, and structural game characteristics (Kuss & Griffiths, 2011). But what if games themselves could be used to build resilience against game addiction while fostering positive engagement? Work uncovering risk factors (Kuss & Griffiths, 2011) and studies on resilience factors (risk of Internet addiction reduced by self-compassion [Iskender & Akin, 2011]) have begun to pave the way.+Game addiction is another serious concern for anyone looking to use games to foster psychological wellbeing, and research has implicated risk factors such as personality traits, motivations for playing, and structural game characteristics (Kuss & Griffiths, 2011). But what if games themselves could be used to build resilience against game addiction while fostering positive engagement- Work uncovering risk factors (Kuss & Griffiths, 2011) and studies on resilience factors (risk of Internet addiction reduced by self-compassion [Iskender & Akin, 2011]) have begun to pave the way.
  
 Although a discussion on addiction is well beyond this book’s scope, the message emerges that if we are to be genuinely effective in leveraging the incredible potential of games for positive computing, we need to work carefully through what will be a slowly unraveling story of psychological impact and an important ongoing area of research. The key to a future of positive games lies in giving these technologies credit for producing highly multifaceted and complex experiences, acknowledging the incredible potential they provide, and exploring all the effects of game design on wellbeing so that we can increasingly favor the beneficial ones. Although a discussion on addiction is well beyond this book’s scope, the message emerges that if we are to be genuinely effective in leveraging the incredible potential of games for positive computing, we need to work carefully through what will be a slowly unraveling story of psychological impact and an important ongoing area of research. The key to a future of positive games lies in giving these technologies credit for producing highly multifaceted and complex experiences, acknowledging the incredible potential they provide, and exploring all the effects of game design on wellbeing so that we can increasingly favor the beneficial ones.
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-The Zombies, Run! game, alluded to at the start of this chapter, is one of a multitude of apps and "exergames" whose primary offering is motivation?namely, motivation to do things we don’t otherwise feel intrinsically motivated to do. We may want to do things that improve our wellbeing, but when those things also require effort or are unpleasant in the moment, we are at odds with the pleasure principle. Technology, sometimes via gamification, can step in to resolve the conflict. By layering experience and challenge that are intrinsically enjoyable (e.g., playing a part in a zombie narrative) over the activity that isn’t (e.g., running), if the two activities are sufficiently intertwined (running becomes part of the story), then the whole experience can become more rewarding, thereby increasing our intrinsic motivation to take part.+The Zombies, Run! game, alluded to at the start of this chapter, is one of a multitude of apps and "exergames" whose primary offering is motivation-namely, motivation to do things we don’t otherwise feel intrinsically motivated to do. We may want to do things that improve our wellbeing, but when those things also require effort or are unpleasant in the moment, we are at odds with the pleasure principle. Technology, sometimes via gamification, can step in to resolve the conflict. By layering experience and challenge that are intrinsically enjoyable (e.g., playing a part in a zombie narrative) over the activity that isn’t (e.g., running), if the two activities are sufficiently intertwined (running becomes part of the story), then the whole experience can become more rewarding, thereby increasing our intrinsic motivation to take part.
  
-Uplifted, created by the United Kingdom’s Channel 4 for promoting positive emotions, takes a slightly different approach and embeds moments of positive reflection into an Angry Birds?style casual game. The game and reflection are thematically linked but not intrinsically linked as they occur separately and have little bearing on one another.+Uplifted, created by the United Kingdom’s Channel 4 for promoting positive emotions, takes a slightly different approach and embeds moments of positive reflection into an Angry Birds-style casual game. The game and reflection are thematically linked but not intrinsically linked as they occur separately and have little bearing on one another.
  
 Other approaches engage our self-determined extrinsic motivation by helping us to articulate and track goals, be they larger goals (I will eat healthier) or smaller subgoals (I will chug a glass of water every morning) in aid of closing the gap between our behavior and our goals and values. Other approaches engage our self-determined extrinsic motivation by helping us to articulate and track goals, be they larger goals (I will eat healthier) or smaller subgoals (I will chug a glass of water every morning) in aid of closing the gap between our behavior and our goals and values.
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-In 2006, Yvonne Rogers (2006) discussed designing for increased engagement as an alternative to quiet automation for a future of ubiquitous computing. Rogers proposes "a significant shift from proactive computing to proactive people; where UbiComp technologies are designed not to do things for people but to engage them more actively in what they currently do. Rather than calm living[,] it promotes engaged living, where technology is designed to enable people to do what they want, need or never even considered before by acting in and upon the environment." Design for human autonomy (as opposed to machine autonomy) will be critical to fostering wellbeing (Calvo, Peters, Johnson, & Rogers, 2014). An important balancing factor for human autonomy (as pointed out to us by Ben Shneiderman in conversation) is the reality of interdependence and our interconnected relationship to others. Both of these are core to SDT. If we were to look at design for motivation and engagement from the perspective of SDT, then when we evaluate a technology, we might ask these questions: Does the user experience respect autonomy? Does the user experience support a sense of competence? Does the user experience support connection to others? Of course, in being a theory of both wellbeing and motivation, it should also help us create conditions for engagement and flow.+In 2006, Yvonne Rogers (2006) discussed designing for increased engagement as an alternative to quiet automation for a future of ubiquitous computing. Rogers proposes "a significant shift from proactive computing to proactive people; where UbiComp technologies are designed not to do things for people but to engage them more actively in what they currently do. Rather than calm living[,] it promotes engaged living, where technology is designed to enable people to do what they want, need or never even considered before by acting in and upon the environment." Design for human autonomy (as opposed to machine autonomy) will be critical to fostering wellbeing (Calvo, Peters, Johnson, & Rogers, 2014). An important balancing factor for human autonomy (as pointed out to us by Ben Shneiderman in conversation) is the reality of interdependence and our interconnected relationship to others. Both of these are core to SDT. If we were to look at design for motivation and engagement from the perspective of SDT, then when we evaluate a technology, we might ask these questions: Does the user experience respect autonomy- Does the user experience support a sense of competence- Does the user experience support connection to others- Of course, in being a theory of both wellbeing and motivation, it should also help us create conditions for engagement and flow.
  
 Although it is generally accepted that there is no way to reliably design an experience of flow (the triggers are too individual), there are nonetheless ways to design conditions that increase the likelihood of flow experience. One approach to doing this is to identify the obstacles to flow and design to reduce them. Researchers in attentive computing investigate, among other things, how interruptions can be minimized and attention sustained. Modern versions of popular productivity software such as Microsoft Word and WordPress have incorporated options that remove screen clutter, allowing the user to focus only on the task at hand. Similar examples were Apple’s inclusion of the "Do not disturb" setting in its iOS, and Freedom, a software application whose sole purpose is to allow you to easily shut down your Internet connection for a set period of time so you can proceed without distractions. Although it is generally accepted that there is no way to reliably design an experience of flow (the triggers are too individual), there are nonetheless ways to design conditions that increase the likelihood of flow experience. One approach to doing this is to identify the obstacles to flow and design to reduce them. Researchers in attentive computing investigate, among other things, how interruptions can be minimized and attention sustained. Modern versions of popular productivity software such as Microsoft Word and WordPress have incorporated options that remove screen clutter, allowing the user to focus only on the task at hand. Similar examples were Apple’s inclusion of the "Do not disturb" setting in its iOS, and Freedom, a software application whose sole purpose is to allow you to easily shut down your Internet connection for a set period of time so you can proceed without distractions.
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 </WRAP>  |  </WRAP>  | 
book/positive_computing/7_motivation_engagement_and_flow.1468292013.txt.gz · Last modified: 2016/07/12 11:23 by hkimscil
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