book:positive_computing:7_motivation_engagement_and_flow
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| ====== 7 Motivation, Engagement, and Flow ====== | ====== 7 Motivation, Engagement, and Flow ====== | ||
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| I can hear the threatening moans of the undead gaining on me from behind. Picking up the pace, I break into a run, and my heart quickens. I round a sharp corner, cut through the park, and finally welcome the reassuring news through my earbuds: " | I can hear the threatening moans of the undead gaining on me from behind. Picking up the pace, I break into a run, and my heart quickens. I round a sharp corner, cut through the park, and finally welcome the reassuring news through my earbuds: " | ||
| - | Jogging for your life in the midst of a zombie apocalypse is just one of the many ingenious ways designers have conceived to get people motivated in the modern world.1 The reality is, I’m not the Nike+ type (Dorian, here). I don’t feel like an amazing athlete, not even with a wristband or strategically triggered applause. But immerse me with agency in the unfolding of a satirical suspense narrative, and I’ve managed a heart-pumping run through the neighborhood?all before breakfast. | + | Jogging for your life in the midst of a zombie apocalypse is just one of the many ingenious ways designers have conceived to get people motivated in the modern world.1 The reality is, I’m not the Nike+ type (Dorian, here). I don’t feel like an amazing athlete, not even with a wristband or strategically triggered applause. But immerse me with agency in the unfolding of a satirical suspense narrative, and I’ve managed a heart-pumping run through the neighborhood |
| Motivation and wellbeing intermingle in sophisticated ways. Not only is motivation fundamental to taking any kind of positive action, but the absence of it is a hallmark of depression. Clearly, a life rich in motivation is more rewarding than life without. | Motivation and wellbeing intermingle in sophisticated ways. Not only is motivation fundamental to taking any kind of positive action, but the absence of it is a hallmark of depression. Clearly, a life rich in motivation is more rewarding than life without. | ||
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| It’s hard to imagine a technology designer who wouldn’t be aiming to motivate users in some way, be it to download, upload, collaborate, | It’s hard to imagine a technology designer who wouldn’t be aiming to motivate users in some way, be it to download, upload, collaborate, | ||
| - | Motivation | + | ===== Motivation |
| - | The Pleasure Principle | + | |
| + | ==== The Pleasure Principle | ||
| At the most primitive level, motivation can ultimately be viewed as the desire to seek pleasure and avoid pain. With origins stretching as far back as ancient Greece at least, our understanding of motivation has at various points been contested, reinforced, and expanded by psychologists, | At the most primitive level, motivation can ultimately be viewed as the desire to seek pleasure and avoid pain. With origins stretching as far back as ancient Greece at least, our understanding of motivation has at various points been contested, reinforced, and expanded by psychologists, | ||
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| Motivational theories, too numerous to cover here, have generally focused on either social underpinnings, | Motivational theories, too numerous to cover here, have generally focused on either social underpinnings, | ||
| - | Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation?a Sibling Rivalry | + | ==== Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation |
| If I engage in an activity because it’s fun, I am said to be intrinsically motivated. In a sense, the activity is its own reward. If I engage because I fear the stick or crave the carrot, I am said to be extrinsically motivated. The carrot represents a reward separate to the task (e.g., money, points, or approval), and the stick is, of course, a punishment (e.g., exclusion, demotion, or imprisonment), | If I engage in an activity because it’s fun, I am said to be intrinsically motivated. In a sense, the activity is its own reward. If I engage because I fear the stick or crave the carrot, I am said to be extrinsically motivated. The carrot represents a reward separate to the task (e.g., money, points, or approval), and the stick is, of course, a punishment (e.g., exclusion, demotion, or imprisonment), | ||
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| The most obvious deployment of every type of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in technology design today is mastered in games and seen in the application of game mechanics to nongames, also known as " | The most obvious deployment of every type of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in technology design today is mastered in games and seen in the application of game mechanics to nongames, also known as " | ||
| - | Motivation That Is Intrinsic to Being Human | + | ===== Motivation That Is Intrinsic to Being Human ===== |
| In the case of the volunteer and the medical student mentioned earlier, it may be helpful to look at their goals as stemming from innate human needs, such as purpose, connectedness, | In the case of the volunteer and the medical student mentioned earlier, it may be helpful to look at their goals as stemming from innate human needs, such as purpose, connectedness, | ||
| - | Drives, Needs, and Desires | + | ==== Drives, Needs, and Desires |
| - | At the foundation of modern motivational theory sits Abraham Maslow’s (1943) hierarchy of human needs. According to this influential theory, we are driven by five levels of needs: "It is quite true that man lives by bread alone?when there is no bread. But what happens to man’s desires when there is plenty of bread and when his belly is chronically filled?" | + | At the foundation of modern motivational theory sits Abraham Maslow’s (1943) hierarchy of human needs. According to this influential theory, we are driven by five levels of needs: "It is quite true that man lives by bread alone --when there is no bread. But what happens to man’s desires when there is plenty of bread and when his belly is chronically filled?" |
| - Physiological needs, such as food, air, and sleep are primary. Only when these needs are met (and, Maslow argues, they generally are outside of emergency situations) can humans move on to other needs. | - Physiological needs, such as food, air, and sleep are primary. Only when these needs are met (and, Maslow argues, they generally are outside of emergency situations) can humans move on to other needs. | ||
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| In the search for fundamental human needs, others have followed Maslow. Steven Reiss (2004) has proposed a set of 16 basic desires, most of which can be filed into Maslow’s hierarchy, with the exception, perhaps, of idealism, power, and vengeance. More recent theories on human motivation have given concepts related to autonomy and competence a more central role, such as Ryan and Deci’s SDT mentioned in chapter 2. Also among the most notable is the work of Carol Dweck. | In the search for fundamental human needs, others have followed Maslow. Steven Reiss (2004) has proposed a set of 16 basic desires, most of which can be filed into Maslow’s hierarchy, with the exception, perhaps, of idealism, power, and vengeance. More recent theories on human motivation have given concepts related to autonomy and competence a more central role, such as Ryan and Deci’s SDT mentioned in chapter 2. Also among the most notable is the work of Carol Dweck. | ||
| - | "I Think I Am" versus "I Think I Can"?Fixed and Growth Mindsets | + | ==== "I Think I Am" versus "I Think I Can" |
| In her early work, Stanford University psychologist Carol Dweck (Dweck & Leggett, 1988; Dweck, 2006) identified two types of behavioral responses: a " | In her early work, Stanford University psychologist Carol Dweck (Dweck & Leggett, 1988; Dweck, 2006) identified two types of behavioral responses: a " | ||
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| These findings can also inform the design of applications that help people set and follow up with goals. Goal-setting tools span a broad spectrum, including those that draw explicitly on psychological theory as well as those that focus more on technical sophistication. What Dweck’s research shows us with regard to wellbeing is that it’s not just the goals you set that are important, but how you think about them and about yourself in relation to them. Therefore, goal-setting tools can impact wellbeing not only by supporting wellness-related goals (I vow to run more or eat better), but also in terms of how they support thinking around goal setting. Trash talk, leaderboards, | These findings can also inform the design of applications that help people set and follow up with goals. Goal-setting tools span a broad spectrum, including those that draw explicitly on psychological theory as well as those that focus more on technical sophistication. What Dweck’s research shows us with regard to wellbeing is that it’s not just the goals you set that are important, but how you think about them and about yourself in relation to them. Therefore, goal-setting tools can impact wellbeing not only by supporting wellness-related goals (I vow to run more or eat better), but also in terms of how they support thinking around goal setting. Trash talk, leaderboards, | ||
| - | Goal Setting?Implications for Wellbeing | + | ==== Goal Setting |
| Goal-setting theory has provided a framework for investigation into how and under what circumstances defining goals influences things such as performance, | Goal-setting theory has provided a framework for investigation into how and under what circumstances defining goals influences things such as performance, | ||
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| Clearly, technology designed to promote motivation and wellbeing through goal setting must keep in mind the need for balance and be skeptical of overly simplistic views of goal-setting psychology. As always, a technology team’s greatest safeguard is collaboration with mental health professionals. | Clearly, technology designed to promote motivation and wellbeing through goal setting must keep in mind the need for balance and be skeptical of overly simplistic views of goal-setting psychology. As always, a technology team’s greatest safeguard is collaboration with mental health professionals. | ||
| - | There is still much investigation to be done around the effects of various types of tracking, goal setting, self-evaluation, | + | There is still much investigation to be done around the effects of various types of tracking, goal setting, self-evaluation, |
| + | |||
| + | ==== Social Motivators ==== | ||
| - | Social Motivators | ||
| Another motivator intrinsic to being human lies in our tendency to be influenced by the actions and opinions of others. Social psychologist Erving Goffman (1959) proposed that much of human behavior is motivated by how we would like others to see us, and his theory provides a way of conceiving the public versus private lives we keep online. Goffman’s interactionist theory was based on his " | Another motivator intrinsic to being human lies in our tendency to be influenced by the actions and opinions of others. Social psychologist Erving Goffman (1959) proposed that much of human behavior is motivated by how we would like others to see us, and his theory provides a way of conceiving the public versus private lives we keep online. Goffman’s interactionist theory was based on his " | ||
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| Consolvo (2009b) argues that technologies that support behavior change should support impression management, the individual’s movement between Goffman’s " | Consolvo (2009b) argues that technologies that support behavior change should support impression management, the individual’s movement between Goffman’s " | ||
| - | The combination of Goffman’s work and cognitive dissonance theory (Festinger, 1957) provides a useful framework for the design of behavior-change applications, | + | The combination of Goffman’s work and cognitive dissonance theory (Festinger, 1957) provides a useful framework for the design of behavior-change applications, |
| Moreover, as mentioned in the chapter on positive emotions, denying negative feelings or enforcing positive thinking via affirmations can have damaging effects to wellbeing. Moreover, there will be cases in which some people’s personal health goals are self-destructive (as in the case of those with anorexia, for example). As part of future research in personal informatics, | Moreover, as mentioned in the chapter on positive emotions, denying negative feelings or enforcing positive thinking via affirmations can have damaging effects to wellbeing. Moreover, there will be cases in which some people’s personal health goals are self-destructive (as in the case of those with anorexia, for example). As part of future research in personal informatics, | ||
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| At the same time, a multitude of successful mental health and wellbeing programs, including Alcoholics Anonymous, coming-out programs, and the SuperBetter resilience app, encourage the participant to connect with a sponsor or ally. Positive role models, mentors, and social proof can be just as productively influential as the negative variety can be detrimental. An ongoing research and practice question for positive-computing researchers will be: How can we design to promote positive social influence, while preventing the social validation and spread of destructive patterns? | At the same time, a multitude of successful mental health and wellbeing programs, including Alcoholics Anonymous, coming-out programs, and the SuperBetter resilience app, encourage the participant to connect with a sponsor or ally. Positive role models, mentors, and social proof can be just as productively influential as the negative variety can be detrimental. An ongoing research and practice question for positive-computing researchers will be: How can we design to promote positive social influence, while preventing the social validation and spread of destructive patterns? | ||
| - | The Delicate Issue of Persuasion | + | ===== The Delicate Issue of Persuasion |
| The psychological research on motivation described earlier makes it clear that motivation is a complex and multidimensional construct. Yet as technologists we often seek simplified models to facilitate practical design work. For example, B. J. Fogg’s (2009) behavior model aims for simplicity in the name of practical application and suggests that humans are motivated by pain/ | The psychological research on motivation described earlier makes it clear that motivation is a complex and multidimensional construct. Yet as technologists we often seek simplified models to facilitate practical design work. For example, B. J. Fogg’s (2009) behavior model aims for simplicity in the name of practical application and suggests that humans are motivated by pain/ | ||
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| As described in chapter 4, there are other approaches to supporting motivation for behavior change. One that has rapidly gained popularity among those working on population-wide wellbeing initiatives goes by the name of the book that popularized it: Nudge. | As described in chapter 4, there are other approaches to supporting motivation for behavior change. One that has rapidly gained popularity among those working on population-wide wellbeing initiatives goes by the name of the book that popularized it: Nudge. | ||
| - | Nudging Positive Change?Designers as Choice Architects | + | ===== Nudging Positive Change |
| Nudge theory can be applied to technology design, but it has been more famously positioned as a model for public policy with the distinct aim to improve organizations and society. | Nudge theory can be applied to technology design, but it has been more famously positioned as a model for public policy with the distinct aim to improve organizations and society. | ||
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| Perhaps the most compelling aspect of their argument is the notion that it is impossible to be neutral. When we design information technology (as is true for determining policy), we must base our decisions on something, and even if that something is no more than a coin toss, our decisions will have impacts on wellbeing. If that is the case, it seems crazy to base design decisions on mere chance when we might inform them with knowledge of what will improve people’s lives. VSD might look at user values and determine ways of designing to improve user goals based on those values. Positive computing will look at psychological wellbeing and how we can make architectural decisions that are less likely to do psychological harm and more likely to do psychological good, without removing choice. What nudging reminds us is that for any work that seeks to improve lives, it is essential that liberty and autonomy are preserved and that notions of improvement are based on evidence, not on designer opinion (that evidence being research in psychology in the case of positive computing). | Perhaps the most compelling aspect of their argument is the notion that it is impossible to be neutral. When we design information technology (as is true for determining policy), we must base our decisions on something, and even if that something is no more than a coin toss, our decisions will have impacts on wellbeing. If that is the case, it seems crazy to base design decisions on mere chance when we might inform them with knowledge of what will improve people’s lives. VSD might look at user values and determine ways of designing to improve user goals based on those values. Positive computing will look at psychological wellbeing and how we can make architectural decisions that are less likely to do psychological harm and more likely to do psychological good, without removing choice. What nudging reminds us is that for any work that seeks to improve lives, it is essential that liberty and autonomy are preserved and that notions of improvement are based on evidence, not on designer opinion (that evidence being research in psychology in the case of positive computing). | ||
| - | Engagement and Flow | + | ===== Engagement and Flow ===== |
| In order to move from motivation to ongoing action, one must engage in some sort of activity, and, as such, these two factors are generally studied together. Engagement is quite influencable, | In order to move from motivation to ongoing action, one must engage in some sort of activity, and, as such, these two factors are generally studied together. Engagement is quite influencable, | ||
| - | The Rules of Engagement | + | ==== The Rules of Engagement |
| To have a prior engagement or be engaged means you have committed seriously to some person or purpose. Likewise, when we are engaged in a digital experience, we have committed to it, perhaps not consciously, | To have a prior engagement or be engaged means you have committed seriously to some person or purpose. Likewise, when we are engaged in a digital experience, we have committed to it, perhaps not consciously, | ||
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| * Emotional engagement is assessed by detecting supportive emotions (e.g., interest) and the absence of negative, withdrawal emotions (e.g., anxiety or boredom). | * Emotional engagement is assessed by detecting supportive emotions (e.g., interest) and the absence of negative, withdrawal emotions (e.g., anxiety or boredom). | ||
| * Cognitive engagement is demonstrated when the student uses sophisticated rather than superficial learning strategies. | * Cognitive engagement is demonstrated when the student uses sophisticated rather than superficial learning strategies. | ||
| - | * Behavioral engagement is generally assessed by observing concentration, | + | * Behavioral engagement is generally assessed by observing concentration, |
| * Agentic engagement is signaled by the student’s active contribution to her learning experience (e.g., through creativity and innovation). | * Agentic engagement is signaled by the student’s active contribution to her learning experience (e.g., through creativity and innovation). | ||
| High levels of engagement are frequently described as being contingent on appropriate challenge, autonomy, and intrinsic motivation. Parvaneh Sharafi, Leif Hedman, and Henry Montgomery (2006) have mapped these attributes onto a multidimensional model they describe as the engagement modes (EM) model. The EM model specifies five engagement modes: (1) enjoying/ | High levels of engagement are frequently described as being contingent on appropriate challenge, autonomy, and intrinsic motivation. Parvaneh Sharafi, Leif Hedman, and Henry Montgomery (2006) have mapped these attributes onto a multidimensional model they describe as the engagement modes (EM) model. The EM model specifies five engagement modes: (1) enjoying/ | ||
| - | Flow?the Holy Grail of Engagement | + | ===== Flow -- the Holy Grail of Engagement |
| Flow represents a state of total involvement in autotelic (intrinsically motivated) activity because the activity is so engaging it removes one from reflective self-consciousness. It’s hard to imagine a game designer or software architect who wouldn’t be thrilled to hear that their users were entering states of flow. This reason alone has made it worthy of study among technologists looking to design more rewarding digital experiences. | Flow represents a state of total involvement in autotelic (intrinsically motivated) activity because the activity is so engaging it removes one from reflective self-consciousness. It’s hard to imagine a game designer or software architect who wouldn’t be thrilled to hear that their users were entering states of flow. This reason alone has made it worthy of study among technologists looking to design more rewarding digital experiences. | ||
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| Csikszentmihalyi (1997) describes flow as an " | Csikszentmihalyi (1997) describes flow as an " | ||
| - | Detecting and Measuring Engagement | + | ===== Detecting and Measuring Engagement |
| Both emotional and cognitive engagement occur internally, and, as such, analysis has relied either on subjective reports or on instruments such as the Motivation and Engagement Scale (Martin, 2007), often used in pre/ | Both emotional and cognitive engagement occur internally, and, as such, analysis has relied either on subjective reports or on instruments such as the Motivation and Engagement Scale (Martin, 2007), often used in pre/ | ||
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| Kazuo Yano, Sonja Lyubomirsky, | Kazuo Yano, Sonja Lyubomirsky, | ||
| - | Engagement and Games | + | ==== Engagement and Games ==== |
| When we’re not using our digital devices to engage with learning or work, there’s a good chance we’re using them to play. We’ve been playing games from before we could write (personally and historically), | When we’re not using our digital devices to engage with learning or work, there’s a good chance we’re using them to play. We’ve been playing games from before we could write (personally and historically), | ||
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| So do videogames increase or decrease wellbeing? According to research, the answer is: both. Our challenge is to pull apart the fibers of the digital gaming experience until we can better understand which characteristics improve wellbeing in what contexts and which don’t. | So do videogames increase or decrease wellbeing? According to research, the answer is: both. Our challenge is to pull apart the fibers of the digital gaming experience until we can better understand which characteristics improve wellbeing in what contexts and which don’t. | ||
| - | When it comes to books, whether reading improves or decreases your wellbeing depends largely on content. With videogames, content is significant, | + | When it comes to books, whether reading improves or decreases your wellbeing depends largely on content. With videogames, content is significant, |
| Exposure to violent videogames has consistently been shown to increase aggression, desensitize to violence, and reduce prosocial behavior. For example, a recent meta-analytic review (Anderson et al., 2010) concludes that "the evidence strongly suggests that exposure to violent video games is a causal risk factor for increased aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition, and aggressive affect and for decreased empathy and prosocial behavior." | Exposure to violent videogames has consistently been shown to increase aggression, desensitize to violence, and reduce prosocial behavior. For example, a recent meta-analytic review (Anderson et al., 2010) concludes that "the evidence strongly suggests that exposure to violent video games is a causal risk factor for increased aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition, and aggressive affect and for decreased empathy and prosocial behavior." | ||
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| Carmen Russoniello, | Carmen Russoniello, | ||
| - | This impact suggests that games are still largely untapped for positive-computing research and design. Of course, in the midst of our enthusiasm, we must still be careful to resist sweeping generalizations. That some studies have shown that some specific casual games can decrease stress and depression is very significant and means we can design for that outcome?but it doesn’t follow that all games or even all casual games do this for all people or that secondary effects may not also emerge. | + | This impact suggests that games are still largely untapped for positive-computing research and design. Of course, in the midst of our enthusiasm, we must still be careful to resist sweeping generalizations. That some studies have shown that some specific casual games can decrease stress and depression is very significant and means we can design for that outcome |
| By way of anecdotal illustration, | By way of anecdotal illustration, | ||
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| Although a discussion on addiction is well beyond this book’s scope, the message emerges that if we are to be genuinely effective in leveraging the incredible potential of games for positive computing, we need to work carefully through what will be a slowly unraveling story of psychological impact and an important ongoing area of research. The key to a future of positive games lies in giving these technologies credit for producing highly multifaceted and complex experiences, | Although a discussion on addiction is well beyond this book’s scope, the message emerges that if we are to be genuinely effective in leveraging the incredible potential of games for positive computing, we need to work carefully through what will be a slowly unraveling story of psychological impact and an important ongoing area of research. The key to a future of positive games lies in giving these technologies credit for producing highly multifaceted and complex experiences, | ||
| - | Design Implications | + | ===== Design Implications |
| - | Designing to Motivate | + | |
| - | The Zombies, Run! game, alluded | + | ==== Designing |
| - | Uplifted, created by the United Kingdom’s Channel 4 for promoting positive emotions, takes a slightly different approach and embeds moments of positive reflection into an Angry Birds?style casual game. The game and reflection are thematically linked but not intrinsically linked as they occur separately and have little bearing on one another. | + | |
| + | The Zombies, Run! game, alluded to at the start of this chapter, is one of a multitude of apps and " | ||
| + | |||
| + | Uplifted, created by the United Kingdom’s Channel 4 for promoting positive emotions, takes a slightly different approach and embeds moments of positive reflection into an Angry Birds -- style casual game. The game and reflection are thematically linked but not intrinsically linked as they occur separately and have little bearing on one another. | ||
| Other approaches engage our self-determined extrinsic motivation by helping us to articulate and track goals, be they larger goals (I will eat healthier) or smaller subgoals (I will chug a glass of water every morning) in aid of closing the gap between our behavior and our goals and values. | Other approaches engage our self-determined extrinsic motivation by helping us to articulate and track goals, be they larger goals (I will eat healthier) or smaller subgoals (I will chug a glass of water every morning) in aid of closing the gap between our behavior and our goals and values. | ||
| - | Designing for Engagement and Flow | + | ==== Designing for Engagement and Flow ==== |
| In 2006, Yvonne Rogers (2006) discussed designing for increased engagement as an alternative to quiet automation for a future of ubiquitous computing. Rogers proposes "a significant shift from proactive computing to proactive people; where UbiComp technologies are designed not to do things for people but to engage them more actively in what they currently do. Rather than calm living[,] it promotes engaged living, where technology is designed to enable people to do what they want, need or never even considered before by acting in and upon the environment." | In 2006, Yvonne Rogers (2006) discussed designing for increased engagement as an alternative to quiet automation for a future of ubiquitous computing. Rogers proposes "a significant shift from proactive computing to proactive people; where UbiComp technologies are designed not to do things for people but to engage them more actively in what they currently do. Rather than calm living[,] it promotes engaged living, where technology is designed to enable people to do what they want, need or never even considered before by acting in and upon the environment." | ||
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| - | Note - The Zombies, Run! game consists of audio recordings and an accompanying website that together weave a zombie apocalypse narrative and elements of game mechanics around your exercise routine. Put simply, you’ll run faster and enjoy yourself more if you’re being chased by zombies. See zombiesrungame.com for more information. | + | ==== Note ==== |
| - | References | + | - The Zombies, Run! game consists of audio recordings and an accompanying website that together weave a zombie apocalypse narrative and elements of game mechanics around your exercise routine. Put simply, you’ll run faster and enjoy yourself more if you’re being chased by zombies. See zombiesrungame.com for more information. |
| - | * Anderson, C. A., Shibuya, A., Ihori, N., Swing, E. L., Bushman, B. J., Sakamoto, A., … Saleem, M. (2010). Violent video game effects on aggression, empathy, and prosocial behavior in eastern and western countries: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 136(2), 151?173. | + | |
| - | * Baranowski, T., Buday, R., Thompson, D. I., & Baranowski, J. (2008). Playing for real: Video games and stories for health-related behavior change. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 34(1), 74?82. | + | ==== References |
| - | * Calvo, R. A., & D’Mello, S. (2010). Affect Detection: An Interdisciplinary Review of Models, | + | * Anderson, C. A., Shibuya, A., Ihori, N., Swing, E. L., Bushman, B. J., Sakamoto, A., … Saleem, M. (2010). Violent video game effects on aggression, empathy, and prosocial behavior in eastern and western countries: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 136(2), 151-173. |
| + | * Baranowski, T., Buday, R., Thompson, D. I., & Baranowski, J. (2008). Playing for real: Video games and stories for health-related behavior change. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 34(1), 74-82. | ||
| + | * Calvo, R. A., & D’Mello, S. (2010). Affect Detection: An Interdisciplinary Review of Models, | ||
| * Calvo, R. A., Peters, D., Johnson, D., & Rogers, Y. (2014). Autonomy in technology design. In CHI’14 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systeMs. New York: ACM. | * Calvo, R. A., Peters, D., Johnson, D., & Rogers, Y. (2014). Autonomy in technology design. In CHI’14 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systeMs. New York: ACM. | ||
| - | * Christakis, N. A., & Fowler, J. H. (2007). The spread of obesity in a large social network over 32 years. New England Journal of Medicine, 357(4), 370?379. | + | * Christakis, N. A., & Fowler, J. H. (2007). The spread of obesity in a large social network over 32 years. New England Journal of Medicine, 357(4), 370-379. |
| * Christenson, | * Christenson, | ||
| - | * Consolvo, S. (2009a). Designing for behavior change in everyday life. IEEE Computer, 42(6), 100?103. | + | * Consolvo, S. (2009a). Designing for behavior change in everyday life. IEEE Computer, 42(6), 100-103. |
| - | * Consolvo, S. (2009b). Theory-driven design strategies for technologies that support behavior change in everyday life. In Proceedings of the 27th International Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 405?414). New York: ACM. | + | * Consolvo, S. (2009b). Theory-driven design strategies for technologies that support behavior change in everyday life. In Proceedings of the 27th International Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 405-414). New York: ACM. |
| - | * Consolvo, S., & Everitt, K. (2006). Design requirements for technologies that encourage physical activity. In CHI ’06 proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 457?466). New York: ACM. | + | * Consolvo, S., & Everitt, K. (2006). Design requirements for technologies that encourage physical activity. In CHI ’06 proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 457-466). New York: ACM. |
| * Csikszentmihalyi, | * Csikszentmihalyi, | ||
| * Dourish, P. (2004). Where the action is: The foundations of embodied interaction. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. | * Dourish, P. (2004). Where the action is: The foundations of embodied interaction. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. | ||
| * Dweck, C. S. (2006). Mindset: The new psychology of success. New York: Ballantine Books. | * Dweck, C. S. (2006). Mindset: The new psychology of success. New York: Ballantine Books. | ||
| - | * Dweck, C. S., & Leggett, E. L. (1988). A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality. Psychological Review, 95(2), 256?273. | + | * Dweck, C. S., & Leggett, E. L. (1988). A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality. Psychological Review, 95(2), 256-273. |
| * Engeser, S. (Ed.). (2012). Advances in flow research. New York: Springer. | * Engeser, S. (Ed.). (2012). Advances in flow research. New York: Springer. | ||
| * Festinger, L. (1957). The theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. | * Festinger, L. (1957). The theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. | ||
| - | * Fogg, B. J. (2009). A behavior model for persuasive design. Paper presented at Persuasive 2009, 4th International Conference on Persuasive Technology. Claremont, CA. April 26?29. | + | * Fogg, B. J. (2009). A behavior model for persuasive design. Paper presented at Persuasive 2009, 4th International Conference on Persuasive Technology. Claremont, CA. April 26-29. |
| * Gartner says by 2015, more than 50 percent of organizations that manage innovation processes will gamify those processes. (2011). Gartner Newsroom, April 12. http:// | * Gartner says by 2015, more than 50 percent of organizations that manage innovation processes will gamify those processes. (2011). Gartner Newsroom, April 12. http:// | ||
| - | * Gentile, D. A., Anderson, C. A., Yukawa, S., Ihori, N., Saleem, M., Ming, L. K., … Sakamoto, A. (2009). The effects of prosocial video games on prosocial behaviors: International evidence from correlational, | + | * Gentile, D. A., Anderson, C. A., Yukawa, S., Ihori, N., Saleem, M., Ming, L. K., … Sakamoto, A. (2009). The effects of prosocial video games on prosocial behaviors: International evidence from correlational, |
| * Goffman, E. (1959). The presentation of self in everyday life. Garden City, NY: Doubleday. | * Goffman, E. (1959). The presentation of self in everyday life. Garden City, NY: Doubleday. | ||
| * Graham, S., & Weiner, B. (2012). Motivation: Past, present and future. In K.R. Harris., S. Graham., & T. Urdan (Eds), APA educational psychology handbook (pp. 367-398). APA: Washington. | * Graham, S., & Weiner, B. (2012). Motivation: Past, present and future. In K.R. Harris., S. Graham., & T. Urdan (Eds), APA educational psychology handbook (pp. 367-398). APA: Washington. | ||
| - | * Greene, D., & Lepper, M. R. (1974). Effects of extrinsic rewards on children’s subsequent intrinsic interest. Child Development, | + | * Greene, D., & Lepper, M. R. (1974). Effects of extrinsic rewards on children’s subsequent intrinsic interest. Child Development, |
| - | * Grafsgaard, J. F., Wiggins, J. B., Boyer, K. E., Wiebe, E. N., & Lester, J. C. (2013). Automatically recognizing facial expression: predicting engagement and frustration. In S. D’Mello, S. K., Calvo, R. A., & Olney, A. (eds.), Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Educational Data Mining. July 6?9, in Memphis, Tennessee, USA. | + | * Grafsgaard, J. F., Wiggins, J. B., Boyer, K. E., Wiebe, E. N., & Lester, J. C. (2013). Automatically recognizing facial expression: predicting engagement and frustration. In S. D’Mello, S. K., Calvo, R. A., & Olney, A. (eds.), Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Educational Data Mining. July 6-9, in Memphis, Tennessee, USA. |
| - | * Greitemeyer, | + | * Greitemeyer, |
| - | * Iskender, M., & Akin, A. (2011). Self-compassion and Internet addiction. TOJET, 10(3), 215?221. | + | * Iskender, M., & Akin, A. (2011). Self-compassion and Internet addiction. TOJET, 10(3), 215-221. |
| - | * Johnson, D., Jones, C., Scholes, L., & Colder Carras, M. (2013). Videogames and wellbeing: A comprehensive review (pp. 1?37). Melbourne, AU: Young and Well Cooperative Research Centre. | + | * Johnson, D., Jones, C., Scholes, L., & Colder Carras, M. (2013). Videogames and wellbeing: A comprehensive review (pp. 1-37). Melbourne, AU: Young and Well Cooperative Research Centre. |
| - | * Kayes, D. C. (2004). The 1996 Mount Everest climbing disaster: The breakdown of learning in teams. Human Relations, 57(10), 1263?1284. | + | * Kayes, D. C. (2004). The 1996 Mount Everest climbing disaster: The breakdown of learning in teams. Human Relations, 57(10), 1263-1284. |
| * Koster, R. (2013). A theory of fun in game design. Phoenix: Paraglyph Press. | * Koster, R. (2013). A theory of fun in game design. Phoenix: Paraglyph Press. | ||
| - | * Kuss, D. J., & Griffiths, M. D. (2011). Internet gaming addiction: A systematic review of empirical research. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 10(2), 278?296. | + | * Kuss, D. J., & Griffiths, M. D. (2011). Internet gaming addiction: A systematic review of empirical research. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 10(2), 278-296. |
| - | * Liem, G. A. D., & Martin, A. J. (2012). The Motivation and Engagement Scale: Theoretical framework, psychometric properties, and applied yields. Australian Psychologist, | + | * Liem, G. A. D., & Martin, A. J. (2012). The Motivation and Engagement Scale: Theoretical framework, psychometric properties, and applied yields. Australian Psychologist, |
| - | * Locke, E., & Latham, G. (2006). New directions in goal-setting theory. Directions in Psychological Science, 15(5), 265?268. | + | * Locke, E., & Latham, G. (2006). New directions in goal-setting theory. Directions in Psychological Science, 15(5), 265-268. |
| - | * Lyubomirsky, | + | * Lyubomirsky, |
| - | * Martin, A. J. (2007). Examining a multidimensional model of student motivation and engagement using a construct validation approach. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 77(2), 413?440. | + | * Martin, A. J. (2007). Examining a multidimensional model of student motivation and engagement using a construct validation approach. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 77(2), 413-440. |
| - | * Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50(4), 370?396. | + | * Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50(4), 370-396. |
| * Miles, M. B. & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. | * Miles, M. B. & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. | ||
| - | * Nakamura, J., & Csikszentmihalyi, | + | * Nakamura, J., & Csikszentmihalyi, |
| - | * Reiss, S. (2004). Multifaceted nature of intrinsic motivation: The theory of 16 basic desires. Review of General Psychology, 8(3), 179?193. | + | * Reiss, S. (2004). Multifaceted nature of intrinsic motivation: The theory of 16 basic desires. Review of General Psychology, 8(3), 179-193. |
| - | * Rogers, Y. (2006). Moving on from Weiser’s vision of calm computing: Engaging ubicomp experiences. Proceedings of the 8th International Conference of Ubiquitous Computing, Orange County, CA, USA, September 17?21 (pp. 404?418). Heidelberg: Springer. | + | * Rogers, Y. (2006). Moving on from Weiser’s vision of calm computing: Engaging ubicomp experiences. Proceedings of the 8th International Conference of Ubiquitous Computing, Orange County, CA, USA, September 17-21 (pp. 404-418). Heidelberg: Springer. |
| - | * Russoniello, | + | * Russoniello, |
| - | * Ryan, R., & Deci, E. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: | + | * Ryan, R., & Deci, E. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: |
| - | * Sharafi, P., Hedman, L., & Montgomery, H. (2006). Using information technology: Engagement modes, flow experience, and personality orientations. Computers in Human Behavior, 22, 899?916. doi: | + | * Sharafi, P., Hedman, L., & Montgomery, H. (2006). Using information technology: Engagement modes, flow experience, and personality orientations. Computers in Human Behavior, 22, 899-916. doi: |
| - | * Street, H. (2002). Exploring relationships between goal setting, goal pursuit, and depression: A review. Australian Psychologist, | + | * Street, H. (2002). Exploring relationships between goal setting, goal pursuit, and depression: A review. Australian Psychologist, |
| * Thaler, R. H., & Sunstein, C. R. (2008). Nudge: Improving decisions about health, wealth, and happiness. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. | * Thaler, R. H., & Sunstein, C. R. (2008). Nudge: Improving decisions about health, wealth, and happiness. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. | ||
| - | * Velez, J. A., Mahood, C., Ewoldsen, D. R., & Moyer-Guse, E. (2012). Ingroup versus outgroup conflict in the context of violent video game: The effect of cooperation on increased helping and decreased aggression. Communication Research, (August): 1?20. | + | * Velez, J. A., Mahood, C., Ewoldsen, D. R., & Moyer-Guse, E. (2012). Ingroup versus outgroup conflict in the context of violent video game: The effect of cooperation on increased helping and decreased aggression. Communication Research, (August): 1-20. |
| - | * Wegner, D. M., Schneider, D. J., Carter, S. R., & White, T. L. (1987). Paradoxical effects of thought suppression. Journal of Personality, | + | * Wegner, D. M., Schneider, D. J., Carter, S. R., & White, T. L. (1987). Paradoxical effects of thought suppression. Journal of Personality, |
| - | * White, J. B., Langer, E. J., Yariv, L., & Welch, J. C. (2006). Frequent social comparisons and destructive emotions and behaviors: The dark side of social comparisons. Journal of Adult Development, | + | * White, J. B., Langer, E. J., Yariv, L., & Welch, J. C. (2006). Frequent social comparisons and destructive emotions and behaviors: The dark side of social comparisons. Journal of Adult Development, |
| - | * Yano, K., Lyubomirsky, | + | * Yano, K., Lyubomirsky, |
| + | |||
| + | </ | ||
| + | ====== 7 Motivation, Engagement, and Flow ====== | ||
| + | I can hear the threatening moans of the undead gaining on me from behind. Picking up the pace, I break into a run, and my heart quickens. I round a sharp corner, cut through the park, and finally welcome the reassuring news through my earbuds: " | ||
| + | |||
| + | Jogging for your life in the midst of a zombie apocalypse is just one of the many ingenious ways designers have conceived to get people motivated in the modern world.1 The reality is, I’m not the Nike+ type (Dorian, here). I don’t feel like an amazing athlete, not even with a wristband or strategically triggered applause. But immerse me with agency in the unfolding of a satirical suspense narrative, and I’ve managed a heart-pumping run through the neighborhood-all before breakfast. | ||
| + | |||
| + | Motivation and wellbeing intermingle in sophisticated ways. Not only is motivation fundamental to taking any kind of positive action, but the absence of it is a hallmark of depression. Clearly, a life rich in motivation is more rewarding than life without. | ||
| + | |||
| + | Motivation is a trigger to act, and when that activity is sustained by an ongoing urge to carry on, we are engaged. We might be engaged in writing an article, playing Frisbee, or laying bricks to build a house for someone homeless. Our level of engagement may be barely enough to keep us going, or it might be all-encompassing, | ||
| + | |||
| + | It’s hard to imagine a technology designer who wouldn’t be aiming to motivate users in some way, be it to download, upload, collaborate, | ||
| + | |||
| + | ===== Motivation ===== | ||
| + | |||
| + | ==== The Pleasure Principle ==== | ||
| + | |||
| + | At the most primitive level, motivation can ultimately be viewed as the desire to seek pleasure and avoid pain. With origins stretching as far back as ancient Greece at least, our understanding of motivation has at various points been contested, reinforced, and expanded by psychologists, | ||
| + | |||
| + | Motivational theories, too numerous to cover here, have generally focused on either social underpinnings, | ||
| + | |||
| + | ==== Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation-a Sibling Rivalry ==== | ||
| + | |||
| + | If I engage in an activity because it’s fun, I am said to be intrinsically motivated. In a sense, the activity is its own reward. If I engage because I fear the stick or crave the carrot, I am said to be extrinsically motivated. The carrot represents a reward separate to the task (e.g., money, points, or approval), and the stick is, of course, a punishment (e.g., exclusion, demotion, or imprisonment), | ||
| + | |||
| + | Our environment is replete with examples of extrinsic motivators, and most adults now living were educated by a system that relied on it almost exclusively. Nowadays, the mere mention of a stick is a bit cringeworthy and suggests the controversies that have arisen over what motivators are effective, desirable, or just. Although many psychologists and educators have all but abandoned the stick, researchers such as David Greene, Mark Lepper, and Edward Deci have warned that the carrot can be similarly destructive. | ||
| + | |||
| + | In an often cited seminal study (Greene & Lepper, 1974), preschoolers offered a reward to do something intrinsically motivating (draw pictures) lost their intrinsic motivation and drew less than children asked to do it without a reward. This is just one in a slew of similar studies that have exposed the potential for extrinsic motivators to undermine intrinsic motivation, and growth in this area of research has led to a number of modern revisions of how we should structure our workplaces and societies. | ||
| + | |||
| + | Offering contingent rewards ("if you do this, then you get this") can turn something enjoyable into work, a shift that, over time, degrades intrinsic motivation and may condition us always to need rewards to be motivated. Because intrinsic motivation is associated with quality learning, felt competence, persistence, | ||
| + | |||
| + | But, obviously, we can’t always be intrinsically motivated to do all that needs to be done in a day, and this is where extrinsic motivators become important. Indeed, Ryan and Deci (2000) argue that certain kinds of extrinsic motivation share many of the benefits of its intrinsic sibling and that the important difference lies in autonomy. They provide a model that may prove invaluable to work in positive computing because it separates extrinsic motivation into four categories, each with a " | ||
| + | |||
| + | * External regulation, which is entirely " | ||
| + | * Interjection, | ||
| + | * Identification, | ||
| + | * Integration, | ||
| + | |||
| + | For example, a student memorizing a list of pharmaceuticals because she’s desperate to graduate med school and become a doctor is acting in a way that is self-determined, | ||
| + | |||
| + | Ryan and Deci’s (2000) review of a number of studies reveals that extrinsic motivation that is more internal (and therefore more autonomous or self-determined) is associated with greater engagement, better performance, | ||
| + | |||
| + | Social influence such as reciprocity, | ||
| + | |||
| + | The most obvious deployment of every type of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in technology design today is mastered in games and seen in the application of game mechanics to nongames, also known as " | ||
| + | |||
| + | ===== Motivation That Is Intrinsic to Being Human ===== | ||
| + | |||
| + | In the case of the volunteer and the medical student mentioned earlier, it may be helpful to look at their goals as stemming from innate human needs, such as purpose, connectedness, | ||
| + | |||
| + | ==== Drives, Needs, and Desires ==== | ||
| + | |||
| + | |||
| + | At the foundation of modern motivational theory sits Abraham Maslow’s (1943) hierarchy of human needs. According to this influential theory, we are driven by five levels of needs: "It is quite true that man lives by bread alone-when there is no bread. But what happens to man’s desires when there is plenty of bread and when his belly is chronically filled-" | ||
| + | |||
| + | - Physiological needs, such as food, air, and sleep are primary. Only when these needs are met (and, Maslow argues, they generally are outside of emergency situations) can humans move on to other needs. | ||
| + | - Safety refers to our need for security and stability as well as to safety from physical danger. Insurance plans, career decisions, savings accounts, burglar alarms, and deep freezers can be looked on as ways in which we are motivated by our need to feel relatively protected from harm and loss. Our desire to accrue, collect, and build things, be they real supplies or achievements and virtual collectables in a game, might be linked to this underlying need for stability and safety nets. | ||
| + | - Love follows once the first two need categories are fairly well satisfied, and it includes belongingness and the giving and receiving of affection. Various types of digital environments allow us to develop a sense of belongingness to a group, connect with people whom we love or may come to love, and share in affection. (Sending an intimate text message, " | ||
| + | - Esteem or the high evaluation of oneself by oneself and by others is a recognizable need. Maslow points specifically to esteem-related desires for strength, achievement, | ||
| + | - Self-actualization refers to a person’s tendency to reach his potential, to achieve the most he can become, and to feel fulfilled. As Maslow describes it, "A musician must make music, an artist must paint, a poet must write, if he is to be ultimately happy. What a man can be, he must be. … This tendency might be phrased as the desire to become more and more what one is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming." | ||
| + | |||
| + | In the search for fundamental human needs, others have followed Maslow. Steven Reiss (2004) has proposed a set of 16 basic desires, most of which can be filed into Maslow’s hierarchy, with the exception, perhaps, of idealism, power, and vengeance. More recent theories on human motivation have given concepts related to autonomy and competence a more central role, such as Ryan and Deci’s SDT mentioned in chapter 2. Also among the most notable is the work of Carol Dweck. | ||
| + | |||
| + | ==== "I Think I Am" versus "I Think I Can" | ||
| + | |||
| + | |||
| + | In her early work, Stanford University psychologist Carol Dweck (Dweck & Leggett, 1988; Dweck, 2006) identified two types of behavioral responses: a " | ||
| + | |||
| + | Simply stated, those with fixed mindsets believe their abilities arise from innate capabilities and intelligence endowed at birth that cannot be changed. In contrast, those with a growth mindset believe their abilities are developed over time and can be enhanced, a view that is in far greater alignment with recent discoveries on neuroplasticity and epigenetics. It turns out that these two subtle variations in how we view ourselves lead to striking differences in behavior and wellbeing. | ||
| + | |||
| + | According to Dweck’s research, those harboring a growth mindset are significantly better at identifying their strengths and weaknesses, and when faced with a setback, they tend to look for learning opportunities. In contrast, those with a fixed mindset are more focused on judgments. When a fixed-mindset person is confronted with a setback, her tendency is to judge herself, as in "I am a failure." | ||
| + | |||
| + | Cognitive-behavioral therapy helps people detect helpless patterns and is one of the most successful modern strategies for helping people with depression. The work of Dweck and others such as Heidi Grant, a motivational psychologist at Columbia University’s Motivation Science Center, have been influential to practices in education, management, and personal development. Some applications of this work include advice to parents and caregivers to praise children for effort and improvement rather than innate intelligence ("Good job, you’ve really improved" | ||
| + | |||
| + | These findings can also inform the design of applications that help people set and follow up with goals. Goal-setting tools span a broad spectrum, including those that draw explicitly on psychological theory as well as those that focus more on technical sophistication. What Dweck’s research shows us with regard to wellbeing is that it’s not just the goals you set that are important, but how you think about them and about yourself in relation to them. Therefore, goal-setting tools can impact wellbeing not only by supporting wellness-related goals (I vow to run more or eat better), but also in terms of how they support thinking around goal setting. Trash talk, leaderboards, | ||
| + | |||
| + | ==== Goal Setting-Implications for Wellbeing ==== | ||
| + | |||
| + | Goal-setting theory has provided a framework for investigation into how and under what circumstances defining goals influences things such as performance, | ||
| + | |||
| + | Others have examined the effects of goal setting, goal attainment, and disappointment in the area of personal development and mental health. At a broad level, research has found that " | ||
| + | |||
| + | Some have questioned what they consider to be the overuse of goal setting, particularly in American culture. D. C. Kayes (2004) used the 1996 Mount Everest disaster (in which six expert climbers climbed to their deaths despite all safeguards and information urging them to return) as an example of when relentless adherence to an original goal can become irrational and cause team breakdown. "In the face of an environment that requires learning, short-term project teams may encounter the limits of the positive effects of goal-setting." | ||
| + | |||
| + | More research is needed before we can fully understand the effects of goal setting on practices such as mindfulness and positivity. Mindfulness is frequently described as a method for letting go of plans for the future and nonjudgmentally settling into the realization that "just being is enough." | ||
| + | |||
| + | Clearly, technology designed to promote motivation and wellbeing through goal setting must keep in mind the need for balance and be skeptical of overly simplistic views of goal-setting psychology. As always, a technology team’s greatest safeguard is collaboration with mental health professionals. | ||
| + | |||
| + | There is still much investigation to be done around the effects of various types of tracking, goal setting, self-evaluation, | ||
| + | |||
| + | ==== Social Motivators ==== | ||
| + | |||
| + | |||
| + | Another motivator intrinsic to being human lies in our tendency to be influenced by the actions and opinions of others. Social psychologist Erving Goffman (1959) proposed that much of human behavior is motivated by how we would like others to see us, and his theory provides a way of conceiving the public versus private lives we keep online. Goffman’s interactionist theory was based on his " | ||
| + | |||
| + | Sunny Consolvo and Katherine Everitt (2006) propose a set of guidelines based on Goffman’s and Leon Festinger’s (1957) theories for designing systems that encourage physical activity: (1) give proper credit; (2) provide history, current status, and performance measures; (3) support social influence (i.e., use social pressures and support); and (4) consider practical constraints. These guidelines have since contributed to successful systems (Consolvo, 2009a) as well as to more generic and theory-driven guidelines for behavior change (Consolvo, 2009b). | ||
| + | |||
| + | Consolvo (2009b) argues that technologies that support behavior change should support impression management, the individual’s movement between Goffman’s " | ||
| + | |||
| + | The combination of Goffman’s work and cognitive dissonance theory (Festinger, 1957) provides a useful framework for the design of behavior-change applications, | ||
| + | |||
| + | Moreover, as mentioned in the chapter on positive emotions, denying negative feelings or enforcing positive thinking via affirmations can have damaging effects to wellbeing. Moreover, there will be cases in which some people’s personal health goals are self-destructive (as in the case of those with anorexia, for example). As part of future research in personal informatics, | ||
| + | |||
| + | With regard to social influence as a motivator, many current-day apps and websites supply features that allow users to share their milestones and other personal data with others as a way of leveraging the motivational effects of social support and pressure. Of course, the impact of social pressure is not simply always good or always bad. Clearly, the effects of, say, trying to quit smoking may be different depending on whether you are doing it privately or publicly with your friends watching. Peer pressure is notorious in its connotations regarding teen behavior, such as drug use and risk taking. More generally, research by Sonja Lyubomirsky and others (Lyubomirsky & Ross, 1997; White, Langer, Yariv, & Welch, 2006) have highlighted the negative correlation between social comparison and happiness. Furthermore, | ||
| + | |||
| + | At the same time, a multitude of successful mental health and wellbeing programs, including Alcoholics Anonymous, coming-out programs, and the SuperBetter resilience app, encourage the participant to connect with a sponsor or ally. Positive role models, mentors, and social proof can be just as productively influential as the negative variety can be detrimental. An ongoing research and practice question for positive-computing researchers will be: How can we design to promote positive social influence, while preventing the social validation and spread of destructive patterns- | ||
| + | |||
| + | ===== The Delicate Issue of Persuasion ===== | ||
| + | |||
| + | The psychological research on motivation described earlier makes it clear that motivation is a complex and multidimensional construct. Yet as technologists we often seek simplified models to facilitate practical design work. For example, B. J. Fogg’s (2009) behavior model aims for simplicity in the name of practical application and suggests that humans are motivated by pain/ | ||
| + | |||
| + | The Fogg model is used for diagnosing interaction design problems, uncovering marketing opportunities, | ||
| + | |||
| + | Researchers are working to apply ethical guidelines to persuasive technology (as mentioned in chapter 4) and from the perspective of positive computing, we can view the issue as related to impact on wellbeing. There are various types of motivation and different ways of appealing to them, some of which improve wellbeing and some of which don’t. In general, if wellbeing is our aim, as technologists we must be wary of basing our efforts on a simplified view of human beings and thus risking harm. This risk is one of the reasons we argue so strongly for multidimensional evaluation and for partnerships with wellbeing psychologists who will have a broader knowledge of human behavior and of the strengths and limitations of various models. | ||
| + | |||
| + | How exactly we define a range of motivational impact that includes helpful support at one end and manipulation and propaganda at the other will be a point of ongoing professional debate, but surely both transparency of motives and individual autonomy must be central to making the distinction. | ||
| + | |||
| + | As described in chapter 4, there are other approaches to supporting motivation for behavior change. One that has rapidly gained popularity among those working on population-wide wellbeing initiatives goes by the name of the book that popularized it: Nudge. | ||
| + | |||
| + | ===== Nudging Positive Change-Designers as Choice Architects ===== | ||
| + | |||
| + | Nudge theory can be applied to technology design, but it has been more famously positioned as a model for public policy with the distinct aim to improve organizations and society. | ||
| + | |||
| + | In the book that triggered the wave of interest to follow, Richard Thaler and Cass Sunstein (2008) describe their notion of " | ||
| + | |||
| + | It is perhaps a shame that Thaler and Sunstein opted to use the term paternalism (which they openly acknowledge is saddled with negative and oversimplified connotations). For many, this term obscures the fact that Thaler and Sunstein insist on preserving choice and on basing assessments of improved life satisfaction on the individual’s values rather than on the choice architect’s values. | ||
| + | |||
| + | Perhaps the most compelling aspect of their argument is the notion that it is impossible to be neutral. When we design information technology (as is true for determining policy), we must base our decisions on something, and even if that something is no more than a coin toss, our decisions will have impacts on wellbeing. If that is the case, it seems crazy to base design decisions on mere chance when we might inform them with knowledge of what will improve people’s lives. VSD might look at user values and determine ways of designing to improve user goals based on those values. Positive computing will look at psychological wellbeing and how we can make architectural decisions that are less likely to do psychological harm and more likely to do psychological good, without removing choice. What nudging reminds us is that for any work that seeks to improve lives, it is essential that liberty and autonomy are preserved and that notions of improvement are based on evidence, not on designer opinion (that evidence being research in psychology in the case of positive computing). | ||
| + | |||
| + | ===== Engagement and Flow ===== | ||
| + | |||
| + | In order to move from motivation to ongoing action, one must engage in some sort of activity, and, as such, these two factors are generally studied together. Engagement is quite influencable, | ||
| + | |||
| + | ==== The Rules of Engagement ==== | ||
| + | |||
| + | |||
| + | To have a prior engagement or be engaged means you have committed seriously to some person or purpose. Likewise, when we are engaged in a digital experience, we have committed to it, perhaps not consciously, | ||
| + | |||
| + | Although there is no unilateral agreement on a precise definition or taxonomy of engagement, there tends to be consensus that when someone is engaged in an activity, they are more likely to enjoy it, to produce quality outcomes, and to learn more (Graham & Weiner, 2012). Most of the academic work on engagement has focused on student engagement in school and employee engagement on the job. | ||
| + | |||
| + | Researchers in the learning sciences (Christenson, | ||
| + | |||
| + | * Emotional engagement is assessed by detecting supportive emotions (e.g., interest) and the absence of negative, withdrawal emotions (e.g., anxiety or boredom). | ||
| + | * Cognitive engagement is demonstrated when the student uses sophisticated rather than superficial learning strategies. | ||
| + | * Behavioral engagement is generally assessed by observing concentration, | ||
| + | * Agentic engagement is signaled by the student’s active contribution to her learning experience (e.g., through creativity and innovation). | ||
| + | |||
| + | High levels of engagement are frequently described as being contingent on appropriate challenge, autonomy, and intrinsic motivation. Parvaneh Sharafi, Leif Hedman, and Henry Montgomery (2006) have mapped these attributes onto a multidimensional model they describe as the engagement modes (EM) model. The EM model specifies five engagement modes: (1) enjoying/ | ||
| + | |||
| + | ===== Flow -- the Holy Grail of Engagement ===== | ||
| + | |||
| + | Flow represents a state of total involvement in autotelic (intrinsically motivated) activity because the activity is so engaging it removes one from reflective self-consciousness. It’s hard to imagine a game designer or software architect who wouldn’t be thrilled to hear that their users were entering states of flow. This reason alone has made it worthy of study among technologists looking to design more rewarding digital experiences. | ||
| + | |||
| + | As part of the Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology, Jeanne Nakamura and Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi (2009), the originator of flow theory, identify a number of requirements of flow experiences, | ||
| + | |||
| + | - Concentration on the present moment | ||
| + | - Perceived agency over the situation or activity | ||
| + | - A merging of action and awareness | ||
| + | - A loss of reflective self-consciousness | ||
| + | - A distortion of temporal experience | ||
| + | - Intrinsic rewards | ||
| + | |||
| + | How many technological features are designed to increase productivity, | ||
| + | |||
| + | Csikszentmihalyi (1997) describes flow as an " | ||
| + | |||
| + | ===== Detecting and Measuring Engagement ===== | ||
| + | |||
| + | Both emotional and cognitive engagement occur internally, and, as such, analysis has relied either on subjective reports or on instruments such as the Motivation and Engagement Scale (Martin, 2007), often used in pre/ | ||
| + | |||
| + | Flow has been measured through interviews, surveys, and experience sampling. More recently, advances in emotionally intelligent interfaces (Grafsgaard, | ||
| + | |||
| + | Kazuo Yano, Sonja Lyubomirsky, | ||
| + | |||
| + | ==== Engagement and Games ==== | ||
| + | |||
| + | When we’re not using our digital devices to engage with learning or work, there’s a good chance we’re using them to play. We’ve been playing games from before we could write (personally and historically), | ||
| + | |||
| + | So do videogames increase or decrease wellbeing- According to research, the answer is: both. Our challenge is to pull apart the fibers of the digital gaming experience until we can better understand which characteristics improve wellbeing in what contexts and which don’t. | ||
| + | |||
| + | When it comes to books, whether reading improves or decreases your wellbeing depends largely on content. With videogames, content is significant, | ||
| + | |||
| + | Exposure to violent videogames has consistently been shown to increase aggression, desensitize to violence, and reduce prosocial behavior. For example, a recent meta-analytic review (Anderson et al., 2010) concludes that "the evidence strongly suggests that exposure to violent video games is a causal risk factor for increased aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition, and aggressive affect and for decreased empathy and prosocial behavior." | ||
| + | |||
| + | But not all games are violent, and, unsurprisingly, | ||
| + | |||
| + | The negative effects of videogames are fairly well publicized, but research on the positive effects of games on both psychological and physical wellbeing is less well-known. A survey of randomized controlled studies (Baranowski, | ||
| + | |||
| + | Only seven of the studies were psychological interventions, | ||
| + | |||
| + | Carmen Russoniello, | ||
| + | |||
| + | This impact suggests that games are still largely untapped for positive-computing research and design. Of course, in the midst of our enthusiasm, we must still be careful to resist sweeping generalizations. That some studies have shown that some specific casual games can decrease stress and depression is very significant and means we can design for that outcome-but it doesn’t follow that all games or even all casual games do this for all people or that secondary effects may not also emerge. | ||
| + | |||
| + | By way of anecdotal illustration, | ||
| + | |||
| + | The problem for wellbeing in this scenario is not games in general or even the core game mechanism itself (pattern matching), but the way in which this particular version was designed to profit financially from gambling-based incentives. When I replaced it with an equivalent that employs the same core pattern-matching mechanism, but without the gambling layer, Candy Crush, the negative side-effect disappeared. | ||
| + | |||
| + | My humble experience is hardly research evidence, but it is illustrative of how multilayered and complex the short- and long-term effects of even apparently simple casual games will be on wellbeing (as well as of how design for optimum profit can come up against design for wellbeing). Inevitably, some design aspects of any technology may contribute to wellbeing, while others may decrease it in parallel. This is what seems to occur with cooperative violent videogames that have been correlated with aggression but also cooperation skills (Greitemeyer, | ||
| + | |||
| + | Game addiction is another serious concern for anyone looking to use games to foster psychological wellbeing, and research has implicated risk factors such as personality traits, motivations for playing, and structural game characteristics (Kuss & Griffiths, 2011). But what if games themselves could be used to build resilience against game addiction while fostering positive engagement- Work uncovering risk factors (Kuss & Griffiths, 2011) and studies on resilience factors (risk of Internet addiction reduced by self-compassion [Iskender & Akin, 2011]) have begun to pave the way. | ||
| + | |||
| + | Although a discussion on addiction is well beyond this book’s scope, the message emerges that if we are to be genuinely effective in leveraging the incredible potential of games for positive computing, we need to work carefully through what will be a slowly unraveling story of psychological impact and an important ongoing area of research. The key to a future of positive games lies in giving these technologies credit for producing highly multifaceted and complex experiences, | ||
| + | |||
| + | ===== Design Implications ===== | ||
| + | |||
| + | ==== Designing to Motivate ==== | ||
| + | |||
| + | |||
| + | The Zombies, Run! game, alluded to at the start of this chapter, is one of a multitude of apps and " | ||
| + | |||
| + | Uplifted, created by the United Kingdom’s Channel 4 for promoting positive emotions, takes a slightly different approach and embeds moments of positive reflection into an Angry Birds-style casual game. The game and reflection are thematically linked but not intrinsically linked as they occur separately and have little bearing on one another. | ||
| + | |||
| + | Other approaches engage our self-determined extrinsic motivation by helping us to articulate and track goals, be they larger goals (I will eat healthier) or smaller subgoals (I will chug a glass of water every morning) in aid of closing the gap between our behavior and our goals and values. | ||
| + | |||
| + | ==== Designing for Engagement and Flow ==== | ||
| + | |||
| + | |||
| + | In 2006, Yvonne Rogers (2006) discussed designing for increased engagement as an alternative to quiet automation for a future of ubiquitous computing. Rogers proposes "a significant shift from proactive computing to proactive people; where UbiComp technologies are designed not to do things for people but to engage them more actively in what they currently do. Rather than calm living[,] it promotes engaged living, where technology is designed to enable people to do what they want, need or never even considered before by acting in and upon the environment." | ||
| + | |||
| + | Although it is generally accepted that there is no way to reliably design an experience of flow (the triggers are too individual), | ||
| + | |||
| + | Another approach to supporting flow is to identify those conditions that are particularly conducive to it and include them where possible. For example, based on the work by Nakamura and Csikszentmihalyi (2009), we should design for appropriate challenge, clear reachable goals, and feedback that indicates if we are getting close to these goals. Certainly, these conditions are already familiar to game and interaction designers. A third approach to designing for flow, rather than looking at the universals, honors the individuality of what triggers flow for different people. In a study mentioned earlier (Yano et al., 2012), the research team used sensor data to help workers determine what time of day they were most likely to get into flow. They could then adjust their schedules and habits accordingly. | ||
| + | |||
| + | A significant characteristic of flow theory for HCI is its interactionism (a focus on a system made of the person and the environment). Csikszentmihalyi (1997) describes an emergent motivation that arises from the interaction that forms the context of a flow experience rather than a motivation that is a property of the individual (i.e., commitment) or of the environment (e.g., persuasion). Such a line of argument goes to the heart of current HCI views that combine interactionism and embodiment, such as those by Paul Dourish (2004). | ||
| + | |||
| + | The ways in which different users and technologies interact will be no less an issue for positive computing. For example, reminders to engage with one activity may increase distractions for others and reduce chances of engagement and flow conditions. There are surely ways around this, but the need to analyze the impact of design changes holistically is fundamental. | ||
| + | |||
| + | A final approach to supporting motivation and engagement lies in helping each user discover what unique conditions motivate him or her, which can be supported by behavioral analytics, personal feedback, and reflection. | ||
| + | |||
| + | In the next chapter, we turn to the self, looking at the various ways in which technology can support reflection and self-awareness. We also consider how these apparent virtues can flow unwittingly into negative experience such as rumination and narcissism and how we might be guided by a notion that is at once ancient and groundbreaking: | ||
| + | |||
| + | |||
| + | ==== Note ==== | ||
| + | |||
| + | - The Zombies, Run! game consists of audio recordings and an accompanying website that together weave a zombie apocalypse narrative and elements of game mechanics around your exercise routine. Put simply, you’ll run faster and enjoy yourself more if you’re being chased by zombies. See zombiesrungame.com for more information. | ||
| + | |||
| + | ==== References ==== | ||
| + | |||
| + | * Anderson, C. A., Shibuya, A., Ihori, N., Swing, E. L., Bushman, B. J., Sakamoto, A., … Saleem, M. (2010). Violent video game effects on aggression, empathy, and prosocial behavior in eastern and western countries: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 136(2), 151-173. | ||
| + | * Baranowski, T., Buday, R., Thompson, D. I., & Baranowski, J. (2008). Playing for real: Video games and stories for health-related behavior change. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 34(1), 74-82. | ||
| + | * Calvo, R. A., & D’Mello, S. (2010). Affect Detection: An Interdisciplinary Review of Models, | ||
| + | * Calvo, R. A., Peters, D., Johnson, D., & Rogers, Y. (2014). Autonomy in technology design. In CHI’14 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systeMs. New York: ACM. | ||
| + | * Christakis, N. A., & Fowler, J. H. (2007). The spread of obesity in a large social network over 32 years. New England Journal of Medicine, 357(4), 370-379. | ||
| + | * Christenson, | ||
| + | * Consolvo, S. (2009a). Designing for behavior change in everyday life. IEEE Computer, 42(6), 100-103. | ||
| + | * Consolvo, S. (2009b). Theory-driven design strategies for technologies that support behavior change in everyday life. In Proceedings of the 27th International Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 405-414). New York: ACM. | ||
| + | * Consolvo, S., & Everitt, K. (2006). Design requirements for technologies that encourage physical activity. In CHI ’06 proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 457-466). New York: ACM. | ||
| + | * Csikszentmihalyi, | ||
| + | * Dourish, P. (2004). Where the action is: The foundations of embodied interaction. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. | ||
| + | * Dweck, C. S. (2006). Mindset: The new psychology of success. New York: Ballantine Books. | ||
| + | * Dweck, C. S., & Leggett, E. L. (1988). A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality. Psychological Review, 95(2), 256-273. | ||
| + | * Engeser, S. (Ed.). (2012). Advances in flow research. New York: Springer. | ||
| + | * Festinger, L. (1957). The theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. | ||
| + | * Fogg, B. J. (2009). A behavior model for persuasive design. Paper presented at Persuasive 2009, 4th International Conference on Persuasive Technology. Claremont, CA. April 26-29. | ||
| + | * Gartner says by 2015, more than 50 percent of organizations that manage innovation processes will gamify those processes. (2011). Gartner Newsroom, April 12. http:// | ||
| + | * Gentile, D. A., Anderson, C. A., Yukawa, S., Ihori, N., Saleem, M., Ming, L. K., … Sakamoto, A. (2009). The effects of prosocial video games on prosocial behaviors: International evidence from correlational, | ||
| + | * Goffman, E. (1959). The presentation of self in everyday life. Garden City, NY: Doubleday. | ||
| + | * Graham, S., & Weiner, B. (2012). Motivation: Past, present and future. In K.R. Harris., S. Graham., & T. Urdan (Eds), APA educational psychology handbook (pp. 367-398). APA: Washington. | ||
| + | * Greene, D., & Lepper, M. R. (1974). Effects of extrinsic rewards on children’s subsequent intrinsic interest. Child Development, | ||
| + | * Grafsgaard, J. F., Wiggins, J. B., Boyer, K. E., Wiebe, E. N., & Lester, J. C. (2013). Automatically recognizing facial expression: predicting engagement and frustration. In S. D’Mello, S. K., Calvo, R. A., & Olney, A. (eds.), Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Educational Data Mining. July 6-9, in Memphis, Tennessee, USA. | ||
| + | * Greitemeyer, | ||
| + | * Iskender, M., & Akin, A. (2011). Self-compassion and Internet addiction. TOJET, 10(3), 215-221. | ||
| + | * Johnson, D., Jones, C., Scholes, L., & Colder Carras, M. (2013). Videogames and wellbeing: A comprehensive review (pp. 1-37). Melbourne, AU: Young and Well Cooperative Research Centre. | ||
| + | * Kayes, D. C. (2004). The 1996 Mount Everest climbing disaster: The breakdown of learning in teams. Human Relations, 57(10), 1263-1284. | ||
| + | * Koster, R. (2013). A theory of fun in game design. Phoenix: Paraglyph Press. | ||
| + | * Kuss, D. J., & Griffiths, M. D. (2011). Internet gaming addiction: A systematic review of empirical research. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 10(2), 278-296. | ||
| + | * Liem, G. A. D., & Martin, A. J. (2012). The Motivation and Engagement Scale: Theoretical framework, psychometric properties, and applied yields. Australian Psychologist, | ||
| + | * Locke, E., & Latham, G. (2006). New directions in goal-setting theory. Directions in Psychological Science, 15(5), 265-268. | ||
| + | * Lyubomirsky, | ||
| + | * Martin, A. J. (2007). Examining a multidimensional model of student motivation and engagement using a construct validation approach. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 77(2), 413-440. | ||
| + | * Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50(4), 370-396. | ||
| + | * Miles, M. B. & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. | ||
| + | * Nakamura, J., & Csikszentmihalyi, | ||
| + | * Reiss, S. (2004). Multifaceted nature of intrinsic motivation: The theory of 16 basic desires. Review of General Psychology, 8(3), 179-193. | ||
| + | * Rogers, Y. (2006). Moving on from Weiser’s vision of calm computing: Engaging ubicomp experiences. Proceedings of the 8th International Conference of Ubiquitous Computing, Orange County, CA, USA, September 17-21 (pp. 404-418). Heidelberg: Springer. | ||
| + | * Russoniello, | ||
| + | * Ryan, R., & Deci, E. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: | ||
| + | * Sharafi, P., Hedman, L., & Montgomery, H. (2006). Using information technology: Engagement modes, flow experience, and personality orientations. Computers in Human Behavior, 22, 899-916. doi: | ||
| + | * Street, H. (2002). Exploring relationships between goal setting, goal pursuit, and depression: A review. Australian Psychologist, | ||
| + | * Thaler, R. H., & Sunstein, C. R. (2008). Nudge: Improving decisions about health, wealth, and happiness. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. | ||
| + | * Velez, J. A., Mahood, C., Ewoldsen, D. R., & Moyer-Guse, E. (2012). Ingroup versus outgroup conflict in the context of violent video game: The effect of cooperation on increased helping and decreased aggression. Communication Research, (August): 1-20. | ||
| + | * Wegner, D. M., Schneider, D. J., Carter, S. R., & White, T. L. (1987). Paradoxical effects of thought suppression. Journal of Personality, | ||
| + | * White, J. B., Langer, E. J., Yariv, L., & Welch, J. C. (2006). Frequent social comparisons and destructive emotions and behaviors: The dark side of social comparisons. Journal of Adult Development, | ||
| + | * Yano, K., Lyubomirsky, | ||
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| + | ... | ||
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book/positive_computing/7_motivation_engagement_and_flow.1468246678.txt.gz · Last modified: 2016/07/11 22:47 by hkimscil